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speeches—which he wrote himself—were non partisan but carried a conservative pro business message he was influenced by Lemuel Boulware a senior GE executive Boulware known for his tough stance against unions and his innovative strategies to win over workers championed the core tenets of modern American conservatism free markets anticommunism lower taxes and limited government Eager for a larger stage but not allowed to enter politics by GE he quit and formally registered as a Republican He often said "I didn t leave the Democratic Party The party left me" When legislation that would become Medicare was introduced in Reagan created a recording for the American Medical Association warning that such legislation would mean the end of freedom in America Reagan said that if his listeners did not write letters to prevent it "we will awake to find that we have socialism And if you don t do this and if I don t do it one of these days you and I are going to spend our sunset years telling our children and our children s children what it once was like in America when men were free " He also joined the National Rifle Association and would become a lifetime member Reagan gained national attention in his speeches for conservative presidential contender Barry Goldwater in Speaking for Goldwater Reagan stressed his belief in the importance of smaller government Consolidating themes he had developed in talks for GE he argued in "A Time for Choosing" October The Founding Fathers knew a government can t control the economy without controlling people And they knew when a government sets out to do that it must use force and coercion to achieve its purpose So we have come to a time for choosing You and I are told we must choose between a left or right but I suggest there is no such thing as a left or right There is only an up or down Up to man s age old dream – the maximum of individual freedom consistent with order – or down to the ant heap of totalitarianism " This "A Time for Choosing" speech was not enough to turn around the faltering Goldwater campaign but it was the key event that established Reagan s national political visibility Governor of California – Main article Governorship of Ronald Reagan Ronald and Nancy Reagan celebrate his gubernatorial victory at the Biltmore Hotel in Los AngelesCalifornia Republicans were impressed with Reagan s political views and charisma after his "Time for Choosing" speech he announced in late his campaign for Governor of California in He defeated former San Francisco mayor George Christopher in the GOP primary In Reagan s campaign he emphasized two main themes "to send the welfare bums back to work" and in reference to burgeoning anti war and anti establishment student protests at the University of California at Berkeley "to clean up the mess at Berkeley" Ronald Reagan accomplished in what US Senator William F Knowland in and former Vice President Richard M Nixon in had tried he was elected defeating two term governor Edmund G "Pat" Brown and was sworn in on January In his first term he froze government hiring and approved tax hikes to balance the budget Shortly after the beginning of his term Reagan tested the presidential waters in as part of a "Stop Nixon" movement hoping to cut into Nixon s Southern support and be a compromise candidate if neither Nixon nor second place Nelson Rockefeller received enough delegates to win on the first ballot at the Republican convention However by the time of the convention Nixon had delegate votes more than he needed to secure the nomination followed by Rockefeller with Reagan in third place Reagan was involved in high profile conflicts with the protest movements of the era On May during the People s Park protests at UC Berkeley Reagan sent the California Highway Patrol and other officers to quell the protests in an incident that became known as "Bloody Thursday" resulting in the death of student James Rector and the blinding of carpenter Alan Blanchard Reagan then called out state National Guard troops to occupy the city of Berkeley for two weeks to crack down on the protesters A year after "Bloody Thursday" Reagan responded to questions about campus protest movements saying "If it takes a bloodbath let s get it over with No more appeasement " When the Symbionese Liberation Army kidnapped Patty Hearst in Berkeley and demanded the distribution of food to the poor Reagan joked to a group of political aides about a botulism outbreak contaminating the food Conversely in that one afternoon "Bloody Thursday" police officers were injured including one C H P officer who was knifed in the chest After calling in the National Guard the Guard remained in Berkeley for days camping in People s Park and demonstrations subsided as the University removed cordoned off fencing and placed all development plans for People s Park on hold The Reagans meeting with President Richard Nixon and First Lady Pat Nixon in July Early in the national debate on abortion was beginning Democratic California state senator Anthony Beilenson introduced the "Therapeutic Abortion Act" in an effort to reduce the number of "back room abortions" performed in California The State Legislature sent the bill to Reagan s desk where after many days of indecision he signed it About two million abortions would be performed as a result most because of a provision in the bill allowing abortions for the well being of the mother Reagan had been in office for only four months when he signed the bill and later stated that had he been more experienced as governor he would not have signed it After he recognized what he called the "consequences" of the bill he announced that he was pro life He maintained that position later in his political career writing extensively about abortion In Reagan signed the Mulford Act which became California penal code and c The bill repealed a law allowing public carrying of loaded firearms Named after Republican assemblyman Don Mulford the bill garnered national attention after the Black Panthers marched bearing arms upon the California State Capitol to protest the bill

Despite an unsuccessful attempt to recall him in Reagan was re elected in defeating "Big Daddy" Jesse Unruh He chose not to seek a third term in the following election cycle One of Reagan s greatest frustrations in office concerned capital punishment which he strongly supported His efforts to enforce the state s laws in this area were thwarted when the Supreme Court of California issued its People v Anderson decision which invalidated all death sentences issued in California before though the decision was later overturned by a constitutional amendment The only execution during Reagan s governorship was on April when Aaron Mitchell s sentence was carried out by the state in San Quentin s gas chamber In Reagan as Governor signed the Family Law Act an amalgam of two bills which had been written and revised by the California state legislature for over two years and became the first no fault divorce legislation in the United States Reagan s terms as governor helped to shape the policies he would pursue in his later political career as president By campaigning on a platform of sending "the welfare bums back to work" he spoke out against the idea of the welfare state He also strongly advocated the Republican ideal of less government regulation of the economy including that of undue federal taxation Reagan did not seek re election to a third term as governor in and was succeeded by Democratic California Secretary of State Jerry Brown on January presidential campaignMain article Republican Party United States presidential primaries Ronald Reagan on the podium with Gerald Ford at the Republican National Convention after narrowly losing the presidential nomination In Reagan challenged incumbent President Gerald Ford in a bid to become the Republican Party s candidate for president Reagan soon established himself as the conservative candidate with the support of like minded organizations such as the American Conservative Union which became key components of his political base while President Ford was considered a more moderate Republican Reagan s campaign relied on a strategy crafted by campaign manager John Sears of winning a few primaries early to damage the inevitability of Ford s likely nomination Reagan won North Carolina Texas and California but the strategy failed as he ended up losing New Hampshire Florida and his native Illinois The Texas campaign lent renewed hope to Reagan when he swept all ninety six delegates chosen in the May primary with four more awaiting at the state convention Much of the credit for that victory came from the work of three co chairmen including Ernest Angelo the mayor of Midland and Ray Barnhart of Houston whom President Reagan would appoint in as director of the Federal Highway Administration However as the GOP convention neared Ford appeared close to victory Acknowledging his party s moderate wing Reagan chose moderate Senator Richard Schweiker of Pennsylvania as his running mate if nominated Nonetheless Ford prevailed with delegates to Reagan s Ford would go on to lose the Presidential election to the Democrat Jimmy Carter Reagan s concession speech emphasized the dangers of nuclear war and the threat posed by the Soviet Union Though he lost the nomination he received write in votes in New Hampshire votes as an Independent on Wyoming s ballot and a single electoral vote from a faithless elector in the November election from the state of Washington which Ford had won over Democratic challenger Jimmy Carter After the campaign Reagan remained in the public debate with the Ronald Reagan Radio Commentary series and his political action committee Citizens for the Republic which was later revived in Alexandria Virginia in by the Reagan biographer Craig Shirley presidential campaignMain articles Ronald Reagan presidential campaign and United States presidential election Reagan campaigns with Nancy and Senator Strom Thurmond right in South Carolina The presidential campaign between Reagan and incumbent President Jimmy Carter was conducted during domestic concerns and the ongoing Iran hostage crisis His campaign stressed some of his fundamental principles lower taxes to stimulate the economy less government interference in people s lives states rights and a strong national defense Reagan launched his campaign by declaring "I believe in states rights " After receiving the Republican nomination Reagan selected one of his primary opponents George H W Bush to be his running mate His showing in the October televised debate boosted his campaign Reagan won the election carrying states with electoral votes to electoral votes for Carter representing six states and Washington D C Reagan received of the popular vote while Carter took and Independent John B Anderson a liberal Republican received Republicans captured the Senate for the first time since and gained House seats but the Democrats retained a majority Presidency – Main articles Electoral history of Ronald Reagan Domestic policy of the Ronald Reagan administration Foreign policy of the Ronald Reagan administration Presidency of Ronald Reagan and Reagan Doctrine The Reagan presidency began in a dramatic manner on January as Reagan was giving his inaugural address U S hostages held by Iran for days were set free During his presidency Reagan pursued policies that reflected his personal belief in individual freedom brought changes domestically both to the U S economy and expanded military and contributed to the end of the Cold War Termed the Reagan Revolution his presidency would reinvigorate American morale reinvigorate the American economy and reduce American reliance upon government As president Reagan kept a diary in which he commented on daily occurrences of his presidency and his views on the issues of the day The diaries were published in May in the bestselling book The Reagan Diaries First term – To date Reagan is the oldest person elected to the office of the presidency at and the oldest president at the time of inauguration at years days In his first inaugural address on January which Reagan himself wrote he addressed the country s economic malaise arguing "In this present crisis government is not the solution to our problems government is the problem" Prayer in schools and a moment of silenceIn Reagan became the first president to propose a constitutional amendment on school prayer The school prayer had previously been banned by the supreme court in and Reagan s election reflected an opposition to the courts decision Reagan s proposed amendment stated "Nothing in this Constitution shall be construed to prohibit individual or group prayer in public schools or other public institutions No person shall be required by the United States or by any state to participate in prayer " In a message to Congress Reagan said that his proposed amendment would "restore the simple freedom of our citizens to offer prayer in public schools and institutions " In a nationally televised speech the following day Rabbi Menachem M Schneerson lauded Reagan s speech and said the moment of silence would "ensure that children grow up to be decent and upright " In Reagan again raised the issue asking Congress "why can t the freedom to acknowledge God be enjoyed again by children in every schoolroom across this land " In Reagan expressed his disappointment that the Supreme Court ruling still bans a moment of silence for public school and said he had "an uphill battle " In Reagan again renewed his call for Congress to support voluntary prayer in schools and end "the expulsion of God from America s classrooms " During his term in office Reagan campaigned vigorously to restore prayer to the schools first as a moment of prayer and later as a Moment of Silence Assassination attemptMain article Attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan On March only days into the new administration Reagan his press secretary James Brady Washington police officer Thomas Delahanty and Secret Service agent Timothy McCarthy were struck by gunfire from would be assassin John Hinckley Jr outside the Washington Hilton Hotel Although "close to death" upon arrival at George Washington University Hospital Reagan was stabilized in the emergency room then underwent emergency exploratory surgery He recovered and was released from the hospital on April becoming the first serving U S President to survive being shot in an assassination attempt The attempt had great influence on Reagan s popularity polls indicated his approval rating to be around Reagan believed that God had spared his life so that he might go on to fulfill a greater purpose Assistant Secretary of State nominationIn response to conservative criticism that the state department lacked hardliners Reagan in nominated Ernest W Lefever as Assistant Secretary of State for Human Rights and Humanitarian Affairs Lefever performed poorly at his confirmation hearings and the Senate committee rejected his nomination by vote of Lefever withdrew his name Air traffic controllers strikeMain article Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization In summer PATCO the union of federal air traffic controllers went on strike violating a federal law prohibiting government unions from striking Declaring the situation an emergency as described in the Taft–Hartley Act Reagan stated that if the air traffic controllers "do not report for work within hours they have forfeited their jobs and will be terminated" They did not return and on August Reagan fired striking air traffic controllers who had ignored his order and used supervisors and military controllers to handle the nation s commercial air traffic until new controllers could be hired and trained A leading reference work on public administration concluded "The firing of PATCO employees not only demonstrated a clear resolve by the president to take control of the bureaucracy but it also sent a clear message to the private sector that unions no longer needed to be feared" "Reaganomics" and the economyMain article Reaganomics During Jimmy Carter s last year in office inflation averaged compared with during Reagan s last year in office During Reagan s administration the unemployment rate declined from to with the rate reaching highs of in and in averaging over the eight years and real GDP growth averaged with a high of in while nominal GDP growth averaged and peaked at in Reagan gives a televised address from the Oval Office outlining his plan for Tax Reduction Legislation in July Reagan implemented policies based on supply side economics advocating a laissez faire philosophy and free market fiscal policy seeking to stimulate the economy with large across the board tax cuts He also supported returning the United States to some sort of gold standard and successfully urged Congress to establish the U S Gold Commission to study how one could be implemented Citing the economic theories of Arthur Laffer Reagan promoted the proposed tax cuts as potentially stimulating the economy enough to expand the tax base offsetting the revenue loss due to reduced rates of taxation a theory that entered political discussion as the Laffer curve Reaganomics was the subject of debate with supporters pointing to improvements in certain key economic indicators as evidence of success and critics pointing to large increases in federal budget deficits and the national debt His policy of "peace through strength" resulted in a record peacetime defense buildup including a real increase in defense spending between and During Reagan s presidency federal income tax rates were lowered significantly with the signing of the Economic Recovery Tax Act of which lowered the top marginal tax bracket from to and the lowest bracket from to however other tax increases passed by Congress and signed by Reagan ensured that tax revenues over his two terms were of GDP as compared to over the year period – Then in the Job Training Partnership Act of was signed into law initiating one of the United States first public private partnerships and a major part of the president s job creation program Reagan s Assistant Secretary of Labor and Chief of Staff Al Angrisani was a primary architect of the bill Conversely Congress passed and Reagan signed into law tax increases of some nature in every year from to to continue funding such government programs as Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act of TEFRA Social Security and the Deficit Reduction Act of DEFRA Despite the fact that TEFRA was the "largest peacetime tax increase in American history" gross domestic product GDP growth recovered strongly after the early s recession ended in and grew during his eight years in office at an annual rate of per year with a high of growth in Unemployment peaked at monthly rate in December —higher than any time since the Great Depression—then dropped during the rest of Reagan s presidency Sixteen million new jobs were created while inflation significantly decreased The Tax Reform Act of another bipartisan effort championed by Reagan simplified the tax code by reducing the number of tax brackets to four and slashing a number of tax breaks The top rate was dropped to but capital gains taxes were increased on those with the highest incomes from to The increase of the lowest tax bracket from to was more than offset by expansion of the personal exemption standard deduction and earned income tax credit The net result was the removal of six million poor Americans from the income tax roll and a reduction of income tax liability at all income levels The net effect of all Reagan era tax bills was a decrease in government revenues when compared to Treasury Department revenue estimates from the Administration s first post enactment January budgets However federal income tax receipts increased from to rising from billion to billion or an average annual rate of attributed to higher Social Security receipts and federal outlays grew at an annual rate of President Reagan delivers a special address to Congress on the Program for Economic Recovery from the U S Capitol April a few weeks after surviving an assassination attempt Reagan s policies proposed that economic growth would occur when marginal tax rates were low enough to spur investment which would then lead to higher employment and wages Critics labeled this "trickle down economics"—the belief that tax policies that benefit the wealthy will create a "trickle down" effect to the poor Questions arose whether Reagan s policies benefited the wealthy more than those living in poverty and many poor and minority citizens viewed Reagan as indifferent to their struggles These views were exacerbated by the fact that Reagan s economic regimen included freezing the minimum wage at an hour slashing federal assistance to local governments by cutting the budget for public housing and Section rent subsidies in half and eliminating the antipoverty Community Development Block Grant program The widening gap between the rich and poor had already begun during the s before Reagan s economic policies took effect Along with Reagan s cut in the top regular tax rate on unearned income he reduced the maximum capital gains rate to only Reagan later set tax rates on capital gains at the same level as the rates on ordinary income like salaries and wages with both topping out at Reagan is viewed as an antitax hero despite raising taxes eleven times over the course of his presidency all in the name of fiscal responsibility According to Paul Krugman "Over all the tax increase undid about a third of the cut as a share of GDP the increase was substantially larger than Mr Clinton s tax increase" According to historian and domestic policy adviser Bruce Bartlett Reagan s tax increases over the course of his presidency took back half of the tax cut Further following his opposition to government intervention Reagan cut the budgets of non military programs including Medicaid food stamps federal education programs and the EPA While he protected entitlement programs such as Social Security and Medicare his administration attempted to purge many people with disabilities from the Social Security disability rolls The administration s stance toward the Savings and Loan industry contributed to the savings and loan crisis It is also suggested by a minority of Reaganomics critics that the policies partially influenced the stock market crash of but there is no consensus regarding a single source for the crash In order to cover newly spawned federal budget deficits the United States borrowed heavily both domestically and abroad raising the national debt from billion to trillion Reagan described the new debt as the "greatest disappointment" of his presidency He reappointed Paul Volcker as Chairman of the Federal Reserve and in he appointed monetarist Alan Greenspan to succeed him Reagan ended the price controls on domestic oil which had contributed to energy crises in the early s The price of oil subsequently dropped and the s did not see the fuel shortages that the s had Reagan also fulfilled a campaign promise to repeal the windfall profit tax in which had previously increased dependence on foreign oil Some economists such as Nobel Prize winners Milton Friedman and Robert A Mundell argue that Reagan s tax policies invigorated America s economy and contributed to the economic boom of the s Other economists such as Nobel Prize winner Robert Solow argue that Reagan s deficits were a major reason his successor George H W Bush reneged on a campaign promise and resorted to raising taxes During Reagan s presidency a program was initiated within the U S intelligence community to ensure America s economic strength The program Project Socrates developed and demonstrated the means required for the United States to generate and lead the next evolutionary leap in technology acquisition and utilization for a competitive advantage—automated innovation To ensure that the United States acquired the maximum benefit from automated innovation Reagan during his second term had an executive order drafted to create a new federal agency to implement the Project Socrates results on a nationwide basis However Reagan s term came to end before the executive order could be coordinated and signed and the incoming Bush administration labeling Project Socrates as "industrial policy" had it terminated Escalation of the Cold WarSee also Cold War and Cold War – Reagan escalated the Cold War accelerating a reversal from the policy of détente which began in after the Soviet war in Afghanistan Reagan ordered a massive buildup of the United States Armed Forces and implemented new policies towards the Soviet Union reviving the B Lancer program that had been canceled by the Carter administration and producing the MX missile In response to Soviet deployment of the SS Reagan oversaw NATO s deployment of the Pershing missile in West Germany Reagan the first American president ever to address the British Parliament predicts Marxism–Leninism will be left on the ash heap of history on June Together with the United Kingdom s prime minister Margaret Thatcher Reagan denounced the Soviet Union in ideological terms In a famous address on June to the British Parliament in the Royal Gallery of the Palace of Westminster Reagan said "the forward march of freedom and democracy will leave Marxism–Leninism on the ash heap of history" On March he predicted that communism would collapse stating "Communism is another sad bizarre chapter in human history whose last pages even now are being written" In a speech to the National Association of Evangelicals on March Reagan called the Soviet Union "an evil empire" After Soviet fighters downed Korean Air Lines Flight near Moneron Island on September carrying people including Georgia congressman Larry McDonald Reagan labeled the act a "massacre" and declared that the Soviets had turned "against the world and the moral precepts which guide human relations among people everywhere" The Reagan administration responded to the incident by suspending all Soviet passenger air service to the United States and dropped several agreements being negotiated with the Soviets wounding them financially As result of the shootdown and the cause of KAL s going astray thought to be inadequacies related to its navigational system Reagan announced on September that the Global Positioning System would be made available for civilian use free of charge once completed in order to avert similar navigational errors in future President Reagan meeting with Afghan Mujahideen leaders in the Oval Office in Under a policy that came to be known as the Reagan Doctrine Reagan and his administration also provided overt and covert aid to anti communist resistance movements in an effort to "rollback" Soviet backed communist governments in Africa Asia and Latin America Reagan deployed the CIA s Special Activities Division to Afghanistan and Pakistan They were instrumental in training equipping and leading Mujaheddin forces against the Soviet Army President Reagan s Covert Action program has been given credit for assisting in ending the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan though some of the United States funded armaments introduced then would later pose a threat to U S troops in the s decade war in Afghanistan However in a break from the Carter policy of arming Taiwan under the Taiwan Relations Act Reagan also agreed with the communist government in China to reduce the sale of arms to Taiwan In March Reagan introduced the Strategic Defense Initiative a defense project that would have used ground and space based systems to protect the United States from attack by strategic nuclear ballistic missiles Reagan believed that this defense shield could make nuclear war impossible There was much disbelief surrounding the program s scientific feasibility leading opponents to dub SDI "Star Wars" and argue that its technological objective was unattainable The Soviets became concerned about the possible effects SDI would have leader Yuri Andropov said it would put "the entire world in jeopardy" For those reasons David Gergen former aide to President Reagan believes that in retrospect SDI hastened the end of the Cold War Critics labeled Reagan s foreign policies as aggressive imperialistic and chided them as "warmongering" though they were supported by leading American conservatives who argued that they were necessary to protect U S security interests The Reagan administration also backed anti communist leaders accused of severe human rights violations such as Efraín Ríos Montt of Guatemala Lebanese Civil War Main article Beirut barracks bombing With the approval of Congress Reagan in sent forces to Lebanon to reduce the threat of the Lebanese Civil War The American peacekeeping forces in Beirut a part of a multinational force during the Lebanese Civil War were attacked on October The Beirut barracks bombing killed American servicemen and wounded more than others by a suicide truck bomber Reagan sent in USS New Jersey BB battleship to shell Syrian positions in Lebanon He then withdrew all the Marines from Lebanon Operation Urgent Fury Grenada Main article Invasion of Grenada Reagan meets with Prime Minister Eugenia Charles of Dominica in the Oval Office about ongoing events in Grenada On October Reagan ordered U S forces to invade Grenada code named Operation Urgent Fury where a coup d état had established an independent non aligned Marxist–Leninist government A formal appeal from the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States OECS led to the intervention of U S forces President Reagan also cited an allegedly regional threat posed by a Soviet Cuban military build up in the Caribbean and concern for the safety of several hundred American medical students at St George s University as adequate reasons to invade Operation Urgent Fury was the first major military operation conducted by U S forces since the Vietnam War several days of fighting commenced resulting in a U S victory with American fatalities and wounded American soldiers In mid December after a new government was appointed by the Governor General U S forces withdrew presidential campaignMain article United States presidential election presidential electoral votes by state Reagan red won every state except for Washington D C and Mondale s home state of Minnesota Reagan accepted the Republican nomination in Dallas Texas He proclaimed that it was "morning again in America" regarding the recovering economy and the dominating performance by the U S athletes at the Summer Olympics among other things He became the first American president to open an Olympic Games held in the United States Reagan s opponent in the presidential election was former Vice President Walter Mondale With questions about Reagan s age and a weak performance in the first presidential debate his ability to perform the duties of president for another term was questioned His apparent confused and forgetful behavior was evident to his supporters they had previously known him clever and witty Rumors began to circulate that he had Alzheimer s disease Reagan rebounded in the second debate and confronted questions about his age quipping "I will not make age an issue of this campaign I am not going to exploit for political purposes my opponent s youth and inexperience" which generated applause and laughter even from Mondale himself That November Reagan was re elected winning of states The president s overwhelming victory saw Mondale carry only his home state of Minnesota by votes and the District of Columbia Reagan won a record electoral votes the most of any candidate in United States history and received of the popular vote to Mondale s Second term – Ronald Reagan is sworn in for a second term as president in the Capitol RotundaReagan was sworn in as president for the second time on January in a private ceremony at the White House Because January fell on a Sunday a public celebration was not held but took place in the Capitol Rotunda the following day January was one of the coldest days on record in Washington D C due to poor weather inaugural celebrations were held inside the Capitol In the coming weeks he shook up his staff somewhat moving White House Chief of Staff James Baker to Secretary of the Treasury and naming Treasury Secretary Donald Regan a former Merrill Lynch officer Chief of Staff In Reagan visited a German military cemetery in Bitburg to lay a wreath with West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl It was determined that the cemetery held the graves of forty nine members of the Waffen SS Reagan issued a statement that called the Nazi soldiers buried in that cemetery as themselves "victims" a designation which ignited a stir over whether Reagan had equated the SS men to victims of the Holocaust Pat Buchanan Reagan s Director of Communications argued that the president did not equate the SS members with the actual Holocaust Now strongly urged to cancel the visit the president responded that it would be wrong to back down on a promise he had made to Chancellor Kohl He ultimately attended the ceremony where two military generals laid a wreath Play media Reagan addresses the nation after the Challenger disasterThe disintegration of the Space Shuttle Challenger on January proved a pivotal moment in Reagan s presidency All seven astronauts aboard were killed On the night of the disaster Reagan delivered a speech written by Peggy Noonan in which he said The future doesn t belong to the fainthearted it belongs to the brave We will never forget them nor the last time we saw them this morning as they prepared for their journey and waved goodbye and slipped the surly bonds of


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carmel-nougat carmen-blonde carmen-de-la-torre carmen-moore carmen-rose carol-connors carol-cross carol-cummings carole-dubois carole-gire carole-pierac carol-titian carolyn-connoly carolyn-monroe carrie-cruise cassandra-leigh cassidy cassie-courtland cataline-bullock catherine-count catherine-crystal catherine-ringer catherine-tailleferre cathy-delorme cathy-menard cathy-stewart celeste-fox celine-gallone chanel-preston chanel-price chantal-virapin chanta-rose chantelle-stevens charisma charisma-cole charlie-latour charlie-waters charlotte-de-castille charmane-star chasey-lain chayse-manhattan chaz-vincent chelsea-sinclaire chennin-blanc cheri-janvier cheri-taylor cherry-hill chessie-moore cheyenne-hunter cheyenne-silver china-lee china-leigh china-moon chloe-cruize chloe-dior chloe-kez chloe-stevens chris-collins chris-jordan chris-petersen chrissie-beauchamp christa-abel christa-ludwig christie-ford christi-lake christina-berg christina-blond christina-evol christina-skye christine-black christine-chavert christine-neona christine-rigoler christy-canyon cicciolina cindi-stephens cindy-carver cindy-crawford cindy-more cindy-shepard cindy-wong cinthya-marinho clair-dia claire-robbins claude-janna claudia-jackson claudia-jamsson claudia-mehringer claudia-nero claudia-van-statt claudia-zante claudine-beccarie clea-carson cleo-nichole cleo-patra cody-lane cody-love cody-nicole coffee-brown colleen-brennan connie-bennett connie-peterson constance-money copper-penny coreena corey-everson corinne-lemoine corneliah cory-everson cory-wolf courtney courtney-cummz courtney-james cris-cassidy crissy-moran cris-taliana crystal-breeze crystal-dawn crystal-holland crystal-knight crystal-lake crystal-lovin crystal-sync csilla-kalnay cuban-bee cynara-fox cyndee-summers cynthia-black cynthia-brooks cynthia-hammers cynthia-lavigne dagmar-lost daisy-layne dallas-miko dana-dylan dana-lynn danica-rhea daniela-nanou daniela-schiffer daniele-troeger daniella daniella-schiffer danielle danielle-foxxx danielle-rodgers danny-ricci danyel-cheeks daphne daphne-rosen darby-lloyd-rains darla-crane darla-delovely davia-ardell dayton-rain debbie-northrup debbie-revenge debbie-van-gils debi-diamond debi-jointed debra-lynn deidra-hopkins deidre-holland delania-raffino delia-moore delphine-thail delta-force delta-white demi-moor denice-klarskov denise-derringer denise-dior denise-sloan desiree-cousteau desiree-foxx desiree-lane desiree-west deva-station devin-devasquez devinn-lane devon-shire dia diana-holt diana-kisabonyi diana-siefert diana-stevenson diane-dubois diane-richards diane-sloan diane-suresne dido-angel dillan-lauren dina-deville dina-jewel dina-pearl ditty-blue diva divinity-love djiana dolly-darkley dominique dominique-dewitt dominique-saint-claire donna-hart donna-marie dorle-buchner dorothy-lemay dorothy-onan drea drimla dru-berrymore dusty-rose dyanna-lauren ebony-ayes edina-blond edita-ungerova edwige-faillel eileen-wells elaine-southern elena-berkova elena-maria-ricci eleonore-melzer elisabeth-bure elis-black elise elise-di-medici elle-devyne elle-rio elodie-delage elsa-maroussia elza-brown emili-doll emily-evermoore emily-george emily-jewel emmanuelle-pareze envy-mi erica-boyer erica-eaton erica-havens erica-idol erica-lauren erika-bella erika-cool erika-heaven erika-lockett esme-monroe eva-allen eva-angel eva-dionisio eva-gross eva-kleber eva-lux eva-uettori eve-laurence evelyne-lang evie-delatosso fabiana-venturi faith-stevens fallon fanny-garreau fanny-steel faye-runaway flame flick-shagwell flore-soller flower france-lomay france-quenie francoise frankie-leigh gabriella gabriella-mirelba gabriella-vincze gail-force gail-palmer gail-sterling georgette-saunders georgia-peach georgina-spelvin gia-givanna gianna-lynn gili-sky gina-carrera gina-gianetti gina-janssen gina-lee gina-martell gina-valentino ginger-jay ginger-lee ginger-lynn ginny-noack giovanna gisela-schwarz giselle-monet gladys-laroche gloria-leonard gloria-todd golden-jade greta-carlson greta-milos guia-lauri-filzi gwenda-farnel hare-krane harley-raine hayley-jade hazel-young heather-deeley heather-ellis heather-hart heather-lere heather-lyn heather-manfield heather-thomas heather-torrance heather-wayne heather-young helen-madigan helen-thomas helga-sven helga-wild hillary-summers holly-hollywood holly-joy holly-page holly-ryder honey-winter hottie-hollie hyapatia-lee ida-fabry ildiko-smits illana-moor ines-ridere ingrid-choray isabella-dior isabella-soprano isabelle-allay isabelle-brell isabelle-marchall isobel-wren iveta ivette-blanche jackie-right jacqueline-lorians jacy-allen jada-stevens jade-east jade-hsu jade-marcela jade-summers jade-wong jahn-gold jamie-brooks jamie-james jamie-summers jana-irrova jana-mrazkova jane-baker jane-darling jane-iwanoff jane-lindsay jane-lixx janet-jacme janey-robbins jasmine-delatori jayden-simone jaylyn-rose jayna-woods jazella-moore jazmin-luna-gold jean-afrique jeanette-littledove jeanie-marie-sullivan jean-jennings jeanna-fine jeannie-pepper jenna-jameson jenna-jane jenna-presley jenna-wells jennifer-haussmann jennifer-janes jennifer-jordan jennifer-morante jennifer-noxt jennifer-stewart jennifer-welles jennifer-west jenny jenny-feeling jenny-fields jenny-wings jersey-jaxin jesie-st-james jesse-capelli jessica-bangkok jessica-bogart jessica-darlin jessica-fiorentino jessica-gabriel jessica-laine jessica-may jessica-road jessica-wylde jessi-foster jill-ferari jill-kelly joana-redgrave joan-devlon joanna-storm joanna-sweet jody-maxwell joelle-lequement joelle-petinot johnni-black jordana-james jordan-green jordan-nevaeh jordan-star josephine-carrington joslyn-james julia-chanel julia-dal-fuoco juliana-grandi julia-paes julia-parton julia-perrin julia-swen julia-thomas julie-meadows julie-rage julie-simone juliet-anderson juliet-graham juliette-carelton kacey-jordan kagney-linn-karter kaitlyn-ashley kalena-rios kami-andrews kamila-smith kandee-licks kandi-barbour kapri-styles kara-nox karen-summer kari-foxx karine-gambier karin-schubert karli-sweet karmen-kennedy karol-castro kascha kassi-nova kat kate-frost kate-jones kathia-nobili kathleen-gentry kathleen-white kathy-divan kathy-harcourt kathy-heart kathy-kash katie-cummings katja-love kat-langer katrina-isis katrina-kraven katy-borman katy-caro kaycee-dean kayla-kupcakes kay-parker k-c-valentine keama-kim keira-moon keisha keli-richards kelli-tyler kelly-adams kelly-blue kelly-broox kelly-hearn kelly-kay kelly-kline kelly-nichols kelly-royce kelly-skyline kendra-kay kenzi-marie keri-windsor ketthy-divan kianna-dior kiley-heart kim-alexis kimber-blake kimberly-carson kimberly-kane kimberly-kyle kim-de-place kim-holland kimi-gee kimkim-de kim-kitaine kimmie-lee kimmy-nipples kina-kara kira-eggers kira-red kirsty-waay kitty-langdon kitty-lynxxx kitty-marie kitty-shayne kitty-yung kora-cummings kris-lara krista-lane krista-maze kristara-barrington kristarah-knight kristi-klenot kristina-blonde kristina-king kristina-klevits kristina-soderszk kristine-heller kristin-steen krisztina-ventura krystal-de-boor krystal-steal kylee-karr kylee-nash kylie-brooks kylie-channel kylie-haze kylie-wylde kym-wilde kyoto-sun lachelle-marie lacy-rose lady-amanda-wyldefyre lady-stephanie laetitia-bisset lana-burner lana-cox lana-wood lara-amour lara-roxx lara-stevens lataya-roxx latoya laura-clair laura-lazare laura-lion laura-may laura-orsolya laura-paouck laura-zanzibar lauren-black laurence-boutin lauren-montgomery laurien-dominique laurien-wilde laurie-smith lauryl-canyon lauryn-may leah-wilde lea-magic lea-martini leanna-foxxx lee-caroll leigh-livingston leilani lenora-bruce leslie-winston lesllie-bovee letizia-bruni lexi-lane lexi-matthews lezley-zen lia-fire liliane-gray liliane-lemieuvre lili-marlene lily-gilder lily-labeau lily-rodgers lily-valentine linda-shaw linda-vale linda-wong linnea-quigley lisa-bright lisa-de-leeuw lisa-k-loring lisa-lake lisa-melendez lisa-sue-corey lise-pinson little-oral-annie liza-dwyer liza-harper lizzy-borden logan-labrent lois-ayres lola-cait long-jean-silver loni-bunny loni-sanders loona-luxx lorelei-lee lorelei-rand lorena-sanchez lori-alexia lori-blue lorrie-lovett luci-diamond lucie-doll lucie-theodorova lucy-van-dam lydia-baum lynn-franciss lynn-lemay lynn-ray lynn-stevens lynx-canon lysa-thatcher madelina-ray madison-parker magdalena-lynn maggie-randall mai-lin mandi-wine mandy-bright mandy-malone mandy-may mandy-mistery mandy-starr marcia-minor maren margit-ojetz margitta-hofer margo-stevens margot-mahler mariah-cherry marianne-aubert maria-tortuga marie-anne marie-christine-chireix marie-christine-veroda marie-claude-moreau marie-dominique-cabannes marie-france-morel marie-luise-lusewitz marie-sharp marilyn-chambers marilyne-leroy marilyn-gee marilyn-jess marilyn-martyn marilyn-star marina-hedman marion-webb marita-ekberg marita-kemper marlena marlene-willoughby marry-queen martine-grimaud martine-schultz maryanne-fisher mary-hubay mary-ramunno mary-stuart mascha-mouton maud-kennedy mauvais-denoir maxine-tyler maya-black maya-france megan-leigh megan-martinez megan-reece mei-ling melanie-hotlips melanie-scott melba-cruz melinda-russell melissa-bonsardo melissa-del-prado melissa-golden melissa-martinez melissa-melendez melissa-monet mercedes-dragon mercedes-lynn merle-michaels mesha-lynn mia-beck mia-lina mia-smiles michele-raven michelle-aston michelle-ferrari michelle-greco michelle-maren michelle-maylene michelle-monroe micki-lynn mika-barthel mika-tan mikki-taylor mimi-morgan mindy-rae ming-toy miranda-stevens miss-bunny miss-meadow miss-pomodoro missy missy-graham missy-stone missy-vega misti-jane mistress-candice misty-anderson misty-dawn misty-rain misty-regan mona-lisa mona-page moni monica-baal monica-swinn monika-peta monika-sandmayr monika-unco monique-bruno monique-cardin monique-charell monique-demoan monique-gabrielle monique-la-belle morgan-fairlane morrigan-hel moxxie-maddron mulani-rivera mysti-may nadege-arnaud nadia-styles nadine-bronx nadine-proutnal nadine-roussial nadi-phuket nanci-suiter nancy-hoffman nancy-vee natacha-delyro natalia-wood natalli-diangelo natascha-throat natasha-skyler naudia-nyce nessa-devil nessy-grant nesty nicki-hunter nicky-reed nicole-berg nicole-bernard nicole-black nicole-grey nicole-london nicole-parks nicole-scott nicole-taylor nicolette-fauludi nicole-west nika-blond nika-mamic niki-cole nikita-love nikita-rush nikki-charm nikki-grand nikki-king nikki-knight nikki-randall nikki-rhodes nikki-santana nikki-steele nikki-wilde niko nina-cherry nina-deponca nina-hartley nina-preta oana-efria obaya-roberts olesja-derevko olga-cabaeva olga-conti olga-pechova olga-petrova olivia-alize olivia-del-rio olivia-flores olivia-la-roche olivia-outre ophelia-tozzi orchidea-keresztes orsolya-blonde paige-turner paisley-hunter pamela-bocchi pamela-jennings pamela-mann pamela-stanford pamela-stealt pandora paola-albini pascale-vital pat-manning pat-rhea patricia-dale patricia-diamond patricia-kennedy patricia-rhomberg patrizia-predan patti-cakes patti-petite paula-brasile paula-harlow paula-morton paula-price paula-winters pauline-teutscher penelope-pumpkins penelope-valentin petra-hermanova petra-lamas peyton-lafferty phaedra-grant pia-snow piper-fawn pipi-anderson porsche-lynn porsha-carrera precious-silver priscillia-lenn purple-passion queeny-love rachel-ashley rachel-love rachel-luv rachel-roxxx rachel-ryan rachel-ryder racquel-darrian rane-revere raven reagan-maddux rebecca-bardoux regan-anthony regine-bardot regula-mertens reina-leone reka-gabor renae-cruz renee-foxx renee-lovins renee-morgan renee-perez renee-summers renee-tiffany rhonda-jo-petty rikki-blake riley-ray rio-mariah rita-ricardo roberta-gemma roberta-pedon robin-byrd robin-cannes robin-everett robin-sane rochell-starr rosa-lee-kimball rosemarie roxanne-blaze roxanne-hall roxanne-rollan ruby-richards sabina-k sabre sabrina-chimaera sabrina-dawn sabrina-jade sabrina-johnson sabrina-love-cox sabrina-mastrolorenzi sabrina-rose sabrina-scott sabrina-summers sacha-davril sahara sahara-sands sai-tai-tiger samantha-fox samantha-ryan samantha-sterlyng samantha-strong samueline-de-la-rosa sandra-cardinale sandra-de-marco sandra-kalermen sandra-russo sandy-lee sandy-pinney sandy-reed sandy-samuel sandy-style sandy-summers sara-brandy-canyon sara-faye sarah-bernard sarah-cabrera sarah-hevyn sarah-mills sarah-shine sara-sloane sasha sasha-hollander sasha-ligaya sasha-rose satine-phoenix satin-summer savannah-stern savanna-jane scarlet-scarleau scarlet-windsor seka selena serena serena-south severine-amoux shana-evans shanna-mccullough shannon-kelly shannon-rush shantell-day sharon-da-vale sharon-kane sharon-mitchell shaun-michelle shawna-sexton shawnee-cates shay-hendrix shayne-ryder sheena-horne sheer-delight shelby-star shelby-stevens shelly-berlin shelly-lyons sheri-st-clair sheyla-cats shonna-lynn shyla-foxxx shy-love sierra-sinn sierra-skye sigrun-theil silver-starr silvia-bella silvia-saint silvie-de-lux silvy-taylor simone-west sindee-coxx sindy-lange sindy-shy siobhan-hunter skylar-knight skylar-price skyler-dupree smokie-flame smoking-mary-jane solange-shannon sonya-summers sophia-santi sophie-call sophie-duflot sophie-evans sophie-guers stacey-donovan stacy-lords stacy-moran stacy-nichols stacy-silver stacy-thorn starla-fox starr-wood stefania-bruni stella-virgin stephanie-duvalle stephanie-rage stephanie-renee stevie-taylor summer-knight summer-rose sunny-day sunset-thomas sunshine-seiber susan-hart susanne-brend susan-nero susi-hotkiss suzanne-mcbain suzan-nielsen suzie-bartlett suzie-carina suzi-sparks sweet-nice sweety-pie sybille-rossani sylvia-benedict sylvia-bourdon sylvia-brand sylvia-engelmann syreeta-taylor syren-de-mer syvette szabina-black szilvia-lauren tai-ellis taija-rae taisa-banx talia-james tamara-lee tamara-longley tamara-n-joy tamara-west tami-white tammy tammy-lee tammy-reynolds tania-lorenzo tantala-ray tanya-danielle tanya-fox tanya-foxx tanya-lawson tanya-valis tara-aire tasha-voux tatjana-belousova tatjana-skomorokhova tawnee-lee tawny-pearl tayla-rox taylor-wane teddi-austin teddi-barrett tera-bond tera-heart tera-joy teresa-may teresa-orlowski teri-diver teri-weigel terri-dolan terri-hall tess-ferre tess-newheart thais-vieira tia-cherry tianna tiara tiffany-blake tiffany-clark tiffany-duponte tiffany-rayne tiffany-rousso tiffany-storm tiffany-towers tiffany-tyler tiger-lily tigr timea-vagvoelgyi tina-blair tina-burner tina-evil tina-gabriel tina-loren tina-marie tina-russell tish-ambrose tommi-rose tonisha-mills topsy-curvey tori-secrets tori-sinclair tori-welles tracey-adams traci-lords traci-topps traci-winn tracy-duzit tracy-love tracy-williams tricia-devereaux tricia-yen trinity-loren trisha-rey trista-post trixie-tyler ultramax ursula-gaussmann ursula-moore uschi-karnat valentina valerie-leveau valery-hilton vanessa-chase vanessa-del-rio vanessa-michaels vanessa-ozdanic vanilla-deville velvet-summers veri-knotty veronica-dol veronica-hart veronica-hill veronica-rayne veronica-sage veronika-vanoza via-paxton vicky-lindsay vicky-vicci victoria-evans victoria-gold victoria-knight victoria-luna victoria-paris victoria-slick victoria-zdrok viper virginie-caprice vivian-valentine vivien-martines wendi-white wendy-divine whitney-banks whitney-fears whitney-wonders wonder-tracey wow-nikki xanthia-berstein yasmine-fitzgerald yelena-shieffer yvonne-green zara-whites zsanett-egerhazi zuzie-boobies





Earth to touch the face of God In near the end of the Iran–Iraq War the U S Navy guided missile cruiser USS Vincennes accidentally shot down Iran Air Flight killing civilian passengers The incident further worsened already tense Iran–United States relations War on DrugsMain article War on Drugs Reagan announced a War on Drugs in in response to concerns about the increasing crack epidemic Though Nixon had previously declared a war on drugs Reagan advocated more militant policies He said that "drugs were menacing our society" and promised to fight for drug free schools and workplaces expanded drug treatment stronger law enforcement and drug interdiction efforts and greater public awareness In Reagan signed a drug enforcement bill that budgeted billion to fund the War on Drugs and specified a mandatory minimum penalty for drug offenses The bill was criticized for promoting significant racial disparities in the prison population and critics also charged that the policies did little to reduce the availability of drugs on the street while resulting in a great financial burden for America Defenders of the effort point to success in reducing rates of adolescent drug use First Lady Nancy Reagan made the War on Drugs her main priority by founding the "Just Say No" drug awareness campaign which aimed to discourage children and teenagers from engaging in recreational drug use by offering various ways of saying "no" Nancy Reagan traveled to cities in states raising awareness about the dangers of drugs including alcohol Libya bombingMain article Bombing of Libya UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher seen here with Reagan outside Downing Street London in June granted the U S use of British airbases to launch the Libya attackRelations between Libya and the United States under President Reagan were continually contentious beginning with the Gulf of Sidra incident in by Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi was considered by the CIA to be along with USSR leader Leonid Brezhnev and Cuban leader Fidel Castro part of a group known as the "unholy trinity" and was also labeled as "our international public enemy number one" by a CIA official These tensions were later revived in early April when a bomb exploded in a Berlin discothèque resulting in the injury of American military personnel and death of one serviceman Stating that there was "irrefutable proof" that Libya had directed the "terrorist bombing" Reagan authorized the use of force against the country In the late evening of April the United States launched a series of air strikes on ground targets in Libya The UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher allowed the U S Air Force to use Britain s air bases to launch the attack on the justification that the UK was supporting America s right to self defense under Article of the United Nations Charter The attack was designed to halt Gaddafi s "ability to export terrorism" offering him "incentives and reasons to alter his criminal behavior" The president addressed the nation from the Oval Office after the attacks had commenced stating "When our citizens are attacked or abused anywhere in the world on the direct orders of hostile regimes we will respond so long as I m in this office" The attack was condemned by many countries By a vote of in favor to against with abstentions the United Nations General Assembly adopted resolution which "condemns the military attack perpetrated against the Socialist People s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya on April which constitutes a violation of the Charter of the United Nations and of international law" ImmigrationReagan signed the Immigration Reform and Control Act in The act made it illegal to knowingly hire or recruit illegal immigrants required employers to attest to their employees immigration status and granted amnesty to approximately three million illegal immigrants who entered the United States before January and had lived in the country continuously Critics argue that the employer sanctions were without teeth and failed to stem illegal immigration Upon signing the act at a ceremony held beside the newly refurbished Statue of Liberty Reagan said "The legalization provisions in this act will go far to improve the lives of a class of individuals who now must hide in the shadows without access to many of the benefits of a free and open society Very soon many of these men and women will be able to step into the sunlight and ultimately if they choose they may become Americans " Reagan also said "The employer sanctions program is the keystone and major element It will remove the incentive for illegal immigration by eliminating the job opportunities which draw illegal aliens here " Iran–Contra affairMain articles Iran–Contra affair Reagan administration scandals and Nicaragua v United States President Reagan receives the Tower Report in the Cabinet Room of the White House in In the Iran Contra affair became a problem for the administration stemming from the use of proceeds from covert arms sales to Iran during the Iran–Iraq War to fund the Contra rebels fighting against the government in Nicaragua which had been specifically outlawed by an act of Congress The Iran–Contra affair became a political scandal in the United States during the s The International Court of Justice whose jurisdiction to decide the case was disputed by the United States ruled that the United States had violated international law and breached treaties in Nicaragua in various ways see Nicaragua v United States President Reagan professed that he was unaware of the plot s existence He opened his own investigation and appointed two Republicans and one Democrat John Tower Brent Scowcroft and Edmund Muskie known as the "Tower Commission" to investigate the scandal The commission could not find direct evidence that Reagan had prior knowledge of the program but criticized him heavily for his disengagement from managing his staff making the diversion of funds possible A separate report by Congress concluded that "If the president did not know what his national security advisers were doing he should have" Reagan s popularity declined from to in less than a week the greatest and quickest decline ever for a president The scandal resulted in fourteen indictments within Reagan s staff and eleven convictions Many Central Americans criticize Reagan for his support of the Contras calling him an anti communist zealot blinded to human rights abuses while others say he "saved Central America" Daniel Ortega Sandinistan and president of Nicaragua said that he hoped God would forgive Reagan for his "dirty war against Nicaragua" End of the Cold WarSee also Cold War – Ronald Reagan speaks at the Berlin Wall s Brandenburg Gate challenging Gorbachev to "tear down this wall "Until the early s the United States had relied on the qualitative superiority of its weapons to essentially frighten the Soviets but the gap had been narrowed Although the Soviet Union did not accelerate military spending after President Reagan s military buildup their large military expenses in combination with collectivized agriculture and inefficient planned manufacturing were a heavy burden for the Soviet economy At the same time Saudi Arabia increased oil production which resulted in a drop of oil prices in to one third of the previous level oil was the main source of Soviet export revenues These factors contributed to a stagnant Soviet economy during Gorbachev s tenure Reagan recognized the change in the direction of the Soviet leadership with Mikhail Gorbachev and shifted to diplomacy with a view to encourage the Soviet leader to pursue substantial arms agreements Reagan s personal mission was to achieve "a world free of nuclear weapons" which he regarded as "totally irrational totally inhumane good for nothing but killing possibly destructive of life on earth and civilization" He was able to start discussions on nuclear disarmament with General Secretary Gorbachev Gorbachev and Reagan held four summit conferences between and the first in Geneva Switzerland the second in Reykjavík Iceland the third in Washington D C and the fourth in Moscow Reagan believed that if he could persuade the Soviets to allow for more democracy and free speech this would lead to reform and the end of Communism Speaking at the Berlin Wall on June Reagan challenged Gorbachev to go further saying "General Secretary Gorbachev if you seek peace if you seek prosperity for the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe if you seek liberalization come here to this gate Mr Gorbachev open this gate Mr Gorbachev tear down this wall " Gorbachev and Reagan sign the INF Treaty at the White House in Before Gorbachev s visit to Washington D C for the third summit in the Soviet leader announced his intention to pursue significant arms agreements The timing of the announcement led Western diplomats to contend that Gorbachev was offering major concessions to the United States on the levels of conventional forces nuclear weapons and policy in Eastern Europe He and Reagan signed the Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces INF Treaty at the White House which eliminated an entire class of nuclear weapons The two leaders laid the framework for the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty or START I Reagan insisted that the name of the treaty be changed from Strategic Arms Limitation Talks to Strategic Arms Reduction Talks When Reagan visited Moscow for the fourth summit in he was viewed as a celebrity by the Soviets A journalist asked the president if he still considered the Soviet Union the evil empire "No" he replied "I was talking about another time another era" At Gorbachev s request Reagan gave a speech on free markets at the Moscow State University In his autobiography An American Life Reagan expressed his optimism about the new direction that they charted and his warm feelings for Gorbachev In November ten months after Reagan left office the Berlin Wall was torn down the Cold War was officially declared over at the Malta Summit on December and two years later the Soviet Union collapsed HealthEarly in his presidency Reagan started wearing a custom technologically advanced hearing aid first in his right ear and later in his left as well His decision to go public in regarding his wearing the small audio amplifying device boosted their sales On July Reagan underwent surgery at Bethesda Naval Hospital to remove cancerous polyps from his colon He relinquished presidential power to the Vice President for eight hours in a similar procedure as outlined in the th Amendment which he specifically avoided invoking The surgery lasted just under three hours and was successful Reagan resumed the powers of the presidency later that day In August of that year he underwent an operation to remove skin cancer cells from his nose In October additional skin cancer cells were detected on his nose and removed In January Reagan underwent surgery for an enlarged prostate which caused further worries about his health No cancerous growths were found however and he was not sedated during the operation In July of that year aged he underwent a third skin cancer operation on his nose JudiciaryMain articles Ronald Reagan Supreme Court candidates and Ronald Reagan judicial appointments During his campaign Reagan pledged that if given the opportunity he would appoint the first female Supreme Court Justice That opportunity came in his first year in office when he nominated Sandra Day O Connor to fill the vacancy created by the retirement of Justice Potter Stewart In his second term Reagan elevated William Rehnquist to succeed Warren Burger as Chief Justice and named Antonin Scalia to fill the vacant seat Reagan nominated conservative jurist Robert Bork to the high court in Senator Ted Kennedy a Democrat of Massachusetts strongly condemned Bork and great controversy ensued Bork s nomination was rejected – Reagan then nominated Douglas Ginsburg but Ginsburg withdrew his name from consideration after coming under fire for his cannabis use Anthony Kennedy was eventually confirmed in his place Along with his three Supreme Court appointments Reagan appointed judges to the United States Courts of Appeals and judges to the United States district courts Reagan also nominated Vaughn R Walker who would later be revealed to be the earliest known gay federal judge to the United States District Court for the Central District of California However the nomination stalled in the Senate and Walker was not confirmed until he was renominated by Reagan s successor George H W Bush Early in his tenure Reagan appointed Clarence M Pendleton Jr of San Diego as the first African American to chair the United States Commission on Civil Rights Pendleton tried to steer the commission into a conservative direction in line with Reagan s views on social and civil rights policy during his time as tenure from until his sudden death in Pendleton soon aroused the ire of many civil rights advocates and feminists when he ridiculed the comparable worth proposal as being "Looney Tunes" In Reagan commuted the year sentence of former Louisiana Commissioner of Agriculture and Forestry Gil Dozier a Democrat from Baton Rouge to the time served for violations of both the Hobbs and the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations acts On September the United States District Court for the Middle District of Louisiana convicted Dozier of extortion and racketeering when he pushed companies doing business with his department to make campaign contributions on his behalf Reagan determined that the year sentence was excessive compared to what other political figures in similar circumstances had been receiving Post presidency – Ronald and Nancy Reagan in Los Angeles after leaving the White House early sAfter leaving office in the Reagans purchased a home in Bel Air Los Angeles in addition to the Reagan Ranch in Santa Barbara They regularly attended Bel Air Presbyterian Church and occasionally made appearances on behalf of the Republican Party Reagan delivered a well received speech at the Republican National Convention Previously on November the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library was dedicated and opened to the public At the dedication ceremonies five presidents were in attendance as well as six first ladies marking the first time that five presidents were gathered in the same location Reagan continued publicly to speak in favor of a line item veto the Brady Bill a constitutional amendment requiring a balanced budget and the repeal of the nd Amendment which prohibits anyone from serving more than two terms as president In Reagan established the Ronald Reagan Freedom Award with the newly formed Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation His final public speech was on February during a tribute to him in Washington D C and his last major public appearance was at the funeral of Richard Nixon on April Alzheimer s diseaseAnnouncement and reactionIn August at the age of Reagan was diagnosed with Alzheimer s disease an incurable neurological disorder which destroys brain cells and ultimately causes death In November he informed the nation through a handwritten letter writing in part I have recently been told that I am one of the millions of Americans who will be afflicted with Alzheimer s Disease At the moment I feel just fine I intend to live the remainder of the years God gives me on this earth doing the things I have always done I now begin the journey that will lead me into the sunset of my life I know that for America there will always be a bright dawn ahead Thank you my friends May God always bless you After his diagnosis letters of support from well wishers poured into his California home But there was also speculation over how long Reagan had demonstrated symptoms of mental degeneration Former CBS White House correspondent Lesley Stahl recounted that in her final meeting with the president in Reagan did not seem to know who Stahl was and that she came close to reporting that Reagan was senile but at the end of the meeting Reagan had regained his alertness However Dr Lawrence K Altman a physician employed as a reporter for the New York Times noted that "the line between mere forgetfulness and the beginning of Alzheimer s can be fuzzy" and all four of Reagan s White House doctors said that they saw no evidence of Alzheimer s while he was president Dr John E Hutton Reagan s primary physician from to said the president "absolutely" did not "show any signs of dementia or Alzheimer s" Reagan did experience occasional memory lapses though especially with names Reagan s doctors say that he only began exhibiting overt symptoms of the illness in late or several years after he had left office His former Chief of Staff James Baker considered "ludicrous" the idea that Reagan slept during cabinet meetings Other staff members former aides and friends said they saw no indication of Alzheimer s while he was president The Reagans with a model of USS Ronald Reagan May At left is Newport News Shipbuilding Chairman and CEO Bill Fricks Complicating the picture Reagan suffered an episode of head trauma in July five years before his diagnosis After being thrown from a horse in Mexico a subdural hematoma was found and surgically treated later in the year Nancy Reagan citing what doctors told her asserts that her husband s fall hastened the onset of Alzheimer s disease although acute brain injury has not been conclusively proven to accelerate Alzheimer s or dementia Reagan s one time physician Daniel Ruge has said it is possible but not certain that the horse accident affected the course of Reagan s memory ProgressionAs the years went on the disease slowly destroyed Reagan s mental capacity He was only able to recognize a few people including his wife Nancy He remained active however he took walks through parks near his home and on beaches played golf regularly and until he often went to his office in nearby Century City Reagan suffered a fall at his Bel Air home on January resulting in a broken hip The fracture was repaired the following day and the year old Reagan returned home later that week although he faced difficult physical therapy at home On February Reagan reached the age of becoming the third former president to do so the other two being John Adams and Herbert Hoover with Gerald Ford George H W Bush and Jimmy Carter later reaching Reagan s public appearances became much less frequent with the progression of the disease and as a result his family decided that he would live in quiet semi isolation with his wife Nancy Nancy Reagan told CNN s Larry King in that very few visitors were allowed to see her husband because she felt that "Ronnie would want people to remember him as he was" After her husband s diagnosis and death Nancy Reagan became a stem cell research advocate urging Congress and President George W Bush to support federal funding for embryonic stem cell research something Bush opposed In she praised President Barack Obama for lifting restrictions on such research Mrs Reagan has said that she believes that it could lead to a cure for Alzheimer s DeathMain article Death and state funeral of Ronald Reagan Reagan s casket lying in state in the United States Capitol rotundaReagan died of pneumonia complicated by Alzheimer s disease at his home in Bel Air California on the afternoon of June A short time after his death Nancy Reagan released a statement saying "My family and I would like the world to know that President Ronald Reagan has died after years of Alzheimer s disease at years of age We appreciate everyone s prayers " President George W Bush declared June a National Day of Mourning and international tributes came in from around the world Reagan s body was taken to the Kingsley and Gates Funeral Home in Santa Monica California later in the day where well wishers paid tribute by laying flowers and American flags in the grass On June his body was removed and taken to the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library where a brief family funeral was held conducted by Pastor Michael Wenning His body lay in repose in the Library lobby until June over people viewed the coffin On June Reagan s body was flown to Washington D C where he became the tenth United States president to lie in state in thirty four hours people filed past the coffin On June a state funeral was conducted in the Washington National Cathedral and presided over by President George W Bush Eulogies were

given by former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher former Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney and both former President George H W Bush and President George W Bush Also in attendance were Mikhail Gorbachev and many world leaders including British Prime Minister Tony Blair Prince Charles representing his mother Queen Elizabeth II German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi and interim presidents Hamid Karzai of Afghanistan and Ghazi al Yawer of Iraq After the funeral the Reagan entourage was flown back to the Ronald W Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley California where another service was held and President Reagan was interred At the time of his death Reagan was the longest lived president in U S history having lived years and days years months and days longer than John Adams whose record he surpassed He is now the second longest lived president just days fewer than Gerald Ford He was the first United States president to die in the st century and his was the first state funeral in the United States since that of President Lyndon B Johnson in His burial site is inscribed with the words he delivered at the opening of the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library "I know in my heart that man is good that what is right will always eventually triumph and that there is purpose and worth to each and every life " Legacy Ronald Reagan in at his home at Rancho del CieloSince Reagan left office in substantial debate has occurred among scholars historians and the general public surrounding his legacy Supporters have pointed to a more efficient and prosperous economy as a result of Reagan s economic policies foreign policy triumphs including a peaceful end to the Cold War and a restoration of American pride and morale Proponents also argue Reagan restored faith in the American Dream with his unabated and passionate love for the United States after a decline in American confidence and self respect under Jimmy Carter s perceived weak leadership particularly during the Iranian hostage crisis as well as his gloomy dreary outlook for the future of the United States during the election Critics contend that Reagan s economic policies resulted in rising budget deficits a wider gap in wealth and an increase in homelessness and that the Iran Contra affair lowered American credibility Opinions of Reagan s legacy among the country s leading policy makers and journalists differ as well Edwin Feulner president of The Heritage Foundation said that Reagan "helped create a safer freer world" and said of his economic policies "He took an America suffering from malaise and made its citizens believe again in their destiny " However Mark Weisbrot co Director of the Center for Economic and Policy Research contended that Reagan s "economic policies were mostly a failure" while Howard Kurtz of The Washington Post opined that Reagan was "a far more controversial figure in his time than the largely gushing obits on television would suggest " Despite the continuing debate surrounding his legacy many conservative and liberal scholars agree that Reagan has been the most influential president since Franklin D Roosevelt leaving his imprint on American politics diplomacy culture and economics through his effective communication dedicated patriotism and pragmatic compromising Since he left office historians have reached a consensus as summarized by British historian M J Heale who finds that scholars now concur that Reagan rehabilitated conservatism turned the nation to the right practiced a considerably pragmatic conservatism that balanced ideology and the constraints of politics revived faith in the presidency and in American exceptionalism and contributed to victory in the Cold War Cold WarThe Cold War was a major political economic and military endeavor for over four decades but the confrontation between the two superpowers had decreased dramatically by the end of Reagan s presidency The significance of Reagan s role in ending the Cold War has spurred contentious and opinionated debate That Reagan played a role in contributing to the downfall of the Soviet Union is agreed but the extent of this role is continuously debated with many believing that Reagan s defense policies economic policies military policies and hard line rhetoric against the Soviet Union and Communism as well as summits with General Secretary Gorbachev played a significant part in ending the Cold War United States President Ronald Reagan left and President of the Soviet Union Mikhail Gorbachev meet in He was first among post–World War II presidents to put into practice the concept that the Soviet Union could be defeated rather than simply negotiated with a post Détente strategy a conviction that was vindicated by Gennadi Gerasimov the Foreign Ministry spokesman under Gorbachev who said that the Strategic Defense Initiative was "very successful blackmail The Soviet economy couldn t endure such competition " Reagan s aggressive rhetoric toward the USSR had mixed effects Jeffery W Knopf observes that being labeled "evil" probably made no difference to the Soviets but gave encouragement to the East European citizens opposed to communism General Secretary Gorbachev said of his former rival s Cold War role " He was a man who was instrumental in bringing about the end of the Cold War" and deemed him "a great president" Gorbachev does not acknowledge a win or loss in the war but rather a peaceful end he said he was not intimidated by Reagan s harsh rhetoric Margaret Thatcher former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom said of Reagan "he warned that the Soviet Union had an insatiable drive for military power but he also sensed it was being eaten away by systemic failures impossible to reform " She later said "Ronald Reagan had a higher claim than any other leader to have won the Cold War for liberty and he did it without a shot being fired " Said Brian Mulroney former Prime Minister of Canada "He enters history as a strong and dramatic player in the Cold War " Former President Lech Walesa of Poland acknowledged "Reagan was one of the world leaders who made a major contribution to communism s collapse " That Reagan had little or no effect in ending the Cold War is argued with equal weight that Communism s internal weakness had become apparent and the Soviet Union would have collapsed in the end regardless of who was in power President Harry Truman s policy of containment is also regarded as a force behind the fall of the U S S R and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan undermined the Soviet system itself Domestic and political legacy Reagan in Minneapolis Minnesota Ronald Reagan reshaped the Republican party led the modern conservative movement and altered the political dynamic of the United States More men voted Republican under Reagan and Reagan tapped into religious voters The so called "Reagan Democrats" were a result of his presidency After leaving office Reagan became an iconic influence within the Republican party His policies and beliefs have been frequently invoked by Republican presidential candidates since The Republican presidential candidates were no exception for they aimed to liken themselves to him during the primary debates even imitating his campaign strategies Republican nominee John McCain frequently said that he came to office as "a foot soldier in the Reagan Revolution" Reagan s most famous statement regarding the role of smaller government was that "Government is not a solution to our problem government is the problem " Reagan has become an iconic figure in the Republican Party with praise for his accomplishments part of the standard GOP rhetoric a quarter century after his retirement Washington Post reporter Carlos Lozada notes how in the presidential race the main Republican contenders have adopted "standard GOP Gipper worship " including even Donald Trump who previously had been skeptical The period of American history most dominated by Ronald Reagan and his policies concerning taxes welfare defense the federal judiciary and the Cold War is known today as the Reagan Era and emphasizes that the conservative "Reagan Revolution " led by Reagan had a permanent impact on the United States in domestic and foreign policy The Clinton presidency – is often treated as an extension of the Reagan Era as is the Bush presidency – Historian Eric Foner noted that the Obama candidacy in "aroused a great deal of wishful thinking among those yearning for a change after nearly thirty years of Reaganism " Campaigning for the Democratic nomination in Barack Obama an American liberal interpreted how Reagan changed the nation s trajectory I think Ronald Reagan changed the trajectory of America in a way that Richard Nixon did not and in a way that Bill Clinton did not He put us on a fundamentally different path because the country was ready for it I think they felt like with all the excesses of the s and s and government had grown and grown but there wasn t much sense of accountability in terms of how it was operating I think that people he just tapped into what people were already feeling which was we want clarity we want optimism we want a return to that sense of dynamism and entrepreneurship that had been missing Cultural and political imageAccording to columnist Chuck Raasch "Reagan transformed the American presidency in ways that only a few have been able to" He redefined the political agenda of the times advocating lower taxes a conservative economic philosophy and a stronger military His role in the Cold War further enhanced his image as a different kind of leader Reagan s "avuncular style optimism and plain folks demeanor" also helped him turn "government bashing into an art form" Ronald Reagan s approval ratings Date Event Approval Disapproval March Shot by Hinckley January High unemployment April Libya bombing February Iran Contra affair Presidents of the United States" "American Presidents" and "U S Presidents" redirect here For the C SPAN series see American Presidents Life Portraits For other uses see President of the United States disambiguation For lists of U S Presidents based on other criteria such as age or home state see Template Lists of US Presidents and Vice Presidents The White House in Washington D C is the president s official residence the center of the administration and a prominent symbol of the office Under the United States Constitution the President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States As chief of the executive branch and face of the federal government as a whole the presidency is the highest political office in the United States by influence and recognition The president is also the commander in chief of the United States Armed Forces The president is indirectly elected to a four year term by an Electoral College or by the House of Representatives should the Electoral College fail to award an absolute majority of votes to any person Since the ratification of the Twenty second Amendment to the United States Constitution in no person may be elected President more than twice and no one who has served more than two years of a term to which someone else was elected may be elected more than once Upon the death resignation or removal from office of an incumbent President the Vice President assumes the office The President must be at least years of age has to have lived in the United States for years and has to be a "natural born" citizen of the United States This list includes only those persons who were sworn into office as president following the ratification of the United States Constitution which took effect on March For American leaders before this ratification see President of the Continental Congress The list does not include any Acting Presidents under the Twenty fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution There have been people sworn into office and presidencies as Grover Cleveland served two non consecutive terms and is counted chronologically as both the nd and th president Of the individuals elected as president four died in office of natural causes William Henry Harrison Zachary Taylor Warren G Harding and Franklin D Roosevelt four were assassinated Abraham Lincoln James A Garfield William McKinley and John F Kennedy and one resigned Richard Nixon George Washington the first president was inaugurated in after a unanimous vote of the Electoral College William Henry Harrison spent the shortest time in office with days in Franklin D Roosevelt spent the longest with over twelve years but died shortly into his fourth term in he is the only president to have served more than two terms A constitutional amendment affecting presidents after Harry Truman was passed to limit the number of times an individual can be elected president Andrew Jackson the seventh president was the first to be elected by white men of all classes in after most laws barring non land owners from voting were repealed Warren Harding was the first elected after women gained voting rights in Four presidents – John Q Adams Rutherford B Hayes Benjamin Harrison and George W Bush – lost the popular vote but assumed office Bush was subsequently re elected with a popular majority John F Kennedy has been the only president of Roman Catholic faith and the current president Barack Obama is the first president of African descent Contents List of presidents Living former presidents Timeline See also Notes References External links List of presidents None Federalist Democratic Republican Democratic Whig Republican ? Portrait President State Term of office Party Term n Previous office Vice President George Washington February – December Aged Virginia April n – March Non partisan Commander in Chief of the Continental Army – John Adams John Adams October – July aged Massachusetts March – March n Federalist st Vice President of the United States Thomas Jefferson Thomas Jefferson April – July aged Virginia March – March Democratic Republican nd Vice President of the United States Aaron Burr March – March George Clinton March – April n James Madison March – June aged Virginia March – March Democratic Republican th United States Secretary of State –