incident. Juliette Jowit and Leo Hickman of The Guardian said the new release was "an apparent attempt to undermine public support for international action to tackle climate change" with the start of the 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference scheduled in Durban, South Africa, a week later.[145][146] Nature described the further release as a "poor sequel", and claimed that "it is hard for anyone except the most committed conspiracy theorist to see much of interest in the content of the released e-mails, even taken out of context Main article: Facility for Airborne Atmospheric Measurements FAAM BAe146-300 takes off at RIAT, RAF Fairford, England The Facility for Airborne Atmospheric Measurements (FAAM), part of the National Centre for Atmospheric Science, is based at Cranfield Airport. It is a collaboration with the Natural Environment Research Council.[20] The FAAM was established as part of the National Centre for Atmospheric Science (NCAS),[22] itself part of NERC, to provide aircraft measurement for use by UK atmospheric research organisations on worldwide campaigns. The main equipment is a modified BAe 146 type 301 aircraft, registration G-LUXE, owned and operated by BAE Systems on behalf of Directflight Limited.[23] Areas of application include:[24] Radiative transfer studies in clear and cloudy air; Tropospheric chemistry measurements; Cloud physics and dynamic studies; Dynamics of mesoscale weather systems; Boundary layer and turbulence studies; Remote sensing: verification of ground based instruments; Satellite ground truth: radiometric measurements and winds; Satellite instrument test-bed; Campaigns in the UK and abroad.

Directors General and Chief Executives[edit] Sir William Napier Shaw 1905–1920 Sir Graham Sutton 1954–1965 Basil John Mason 1965–1983 Sir John Houghton 1983–1991[25] Julian Hunt 1992–1997 Peter Ewins 1997–2004 David Rogers 2004–2005 Mark Hutchinson 2005–2007 John Hirst 2007-2014 Rob Varley 2014- Capdown, the ska punk band, came from and formed in Milton Keynes in 1997.[83] Fellsilent, the metal band, come from and formed in Milton Keynes in 2003.[84] Tesseract, the djent band formed as a full live act in Milton Keynes in 2007. Tesseract's guitarist, songwriter and producer Acle Kahney is also a former member of Fellsilent. Hacktivist, the Grime, djent band formed in 2011. Transport[edit] the Grand Union Canal passes over Grafton Street at Bradwell via the modern Bradwell Aqueduct See also: Buses in Milton Keynes The Grand Union Canal between London and Birmingham provides a major axis in the design of Milton Keynes. Milton Keynes has five railway stations. Milton Keynes Central is served by inter-city services. Wolverton, Milton Keynes Central and Bletchley stations are on the West Coast Main Line. Fenny Stratford and Bow Brickhill are on the Marston Vale Line. Woburn Sands railway station, also on the Marston Vale line, is in the small town of Woburn Sands just inside the urban area. The M1 motorway runs along the east flank of MK and serves it from junctions 13, 14, and 15A. The A5 road runs right through MK as a grade separated dual carriageway. Other main roads are the A509, linking Milton Keynes with Wellingborough and Kettering, and the A421 and A422, both running west towards Buckingham and east towards Bedford. Proximity to the M1 has led to construction of a number of distribution centres, including Magna Park at the A421/A5130 junction.[85] Many long-distance coaches stop at the Milton Keynes coachway,[86] (beside M1 Junction 14), some 3.3 miles (5.3 km) from the centre (or 4 mi or 6.4 km from Milton Keynes Central railway station).[87] There is also a park and ride car park on the site. Regional coaches stop at Milton Keynes Central. The main bus operator is Arriva Milton Keynes, providing a number of routes which mainly pass through or serve Central Milton Keynes. Milton Keynes is also served by Arriva-branded services from Aylesbury and Luton as well and Stagecoach East which operate routes to Oxford, Cambridge, Stagecoach Midlands which operates routes to Peterborough and Leicester. Some local services are run by independent operators such as Z&S International and Centrebus. Milton Keynes is served by (and provides part of) routes 6 and 51 on the National Cycle Network. The nearest international airport is London Luton Airport accessible by Stagecoach route 99 from MK Central station, which runs with wheelchair accessible coaches. There is a direct rail connection to Birmingham International station for Birmingham Airport. In addition, Cranfield Airport, an airfield, is 6 miles (10 km) from the centre. (Although Milton Keynes is allocated an International Air Transport Association airport code of KYN,[88] it does not have an airport. Proposals in 1971 for a third London airport at (relatively) nearby Cublington were rejected).[89] Twin towns[edit] Flag of the Netherlands.svg Almere, Netherlands[90] Climate[edit] Milton Keynes experiences an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification Cfb) similar to almost all of the United Kingdom. Recorded temperature extremes range from 34.6 °C (94.3 °F)[91] during July 2006, to as low as -20.6 °C (-5.1 °F)[92] on 25 February 1947. More recently the temperature fell to -16.3 °C (2.7 °F)[93] on 20 December 2010 The nearest Met Office weather station is in Woburn,[94] located just outside the south eastern fringe of the Milton Keynes urban area. The president-elect is Venkatraman Ramakrishnan and he is due to take over as president on 30 November 2015. Permanent staff[edit] The society is assisted by a number of full-time paid staff. The original charter provided for "two or more Operators of Experiments, and two or more clerks"; as the number of books in the society's collection grew, it also became necessary to employ a curator. The staff grew as the financial position of the society improved, mainly consisting of outsiders, along with a small number of scientists who were required to resign their fellowship on employment.[75] The current senior members of staff are:[76] Executive Director: Julie Maxton Director of Science Policy Centre: Tony McBride Publishing Director: Stuart Taylor Chief Strategy Officer: Lesley Miles Director of Communications: Bill Hartnett Director of Grants: Paul McDonald Director of Development: Jennifer Cormack Carlton House Terrace[edit] The current premises of the Royal Society, 6–9 Carlton House Terrace, London (first four properties only) The premises at 6–9 Carlton House Terrace is a Grade I listed building and the current headquarters of the Royal Society, which had moved there from Burlington House in 1967.[77] The ground floor and basement are used for ceremonies, social and publicity events, the first floor hosts facilities for Fellows and Officers of the Society, and the second and third floors are divided between offices and accommodation for the President, Executive Secretary and Fellows.[78] The first Carlton House was named after Baron Carleton, and was sold to Lord Chesterfield in 1732, who held it on trust for Frederick, Prince of Wales. Frederick held his court there until his death in 1751, after which it was occupied by his widow until her death in 1772. In 1783, the then-Prince of Wales George bought the house, instructing his architect Henry Holland to completely remodel it. When George became King, he authorised the demolition of Carlton House, with the request that the replacement be a residential area. John Nash eventually completed a design that saw Carlton House turned into two blocks of houses, with a space in between them.[79] The building is still owned by the Crown Estates and leased by the Society; it underwent a major renovation from 2001 to 2004 at the cost of £9.8 million, and was re-opened by the Prince of Wales on 7 July 2004.[7] Carlton House Terrace underwent a series of renovations between 1999 and November 2003 to improve and standardise the property. New waiting, exhibition and reception rooms were created in the house at No.7, using the Magna Boschi marble found in No.8, and greenish grey Statuario Venato marble was used in other areas to standardise the design.[78] An effort was also made to make the layout of the buildings easier, consolidating all the offices on one floor, Fellows' Rooms on another and all the accommodation on a third.[80] Kavli Royal Society International Centre[edit] In 2009 Chicheley Hall, a Grade I listed building located near Milton Keynes, was bought by the Royal Society for £6.5 million, funded in part by the Kavli Foundation.[81] The Royal Society spent several million on renovations adapting it to become the Kavli Royal Society International Centre, a venue for residential science seminars. The centre held its first scientific meeting on 1 June 2010 and was formally opened on 21 June 2010. Honours[edit] Main article: Awards, lectures and medals of the Royal Society The Royal Society presents numerous awards, lectures and medals to recognise scientific achievement.[82] The oldest is the Croonian Lecture, created in 1701 at the request of the widow of William Croone, one of the founding members of the Royal Society. The Croonian Lecture is still awarded on an annual basis, and is considered the most important Royal Society prize for the biological sciences.[83] Although the Croonian Lecture was created in 1701 it was first awarded in 1738, seven years after the Copley Medal which is the oldest Royal Society medal still in use and is awarded for "outstanding achievements in research in any branch of science".[84] Reputed descendants of Newton's apple tree, (from top to bottom) at Trinity College, Cambridge, the Cambridge University Botanic Garden, and the Instituto Balseiro library garden Newton himself often told the story that he was inspired to formulate his theory of gravitation by watching the fall of an apple from a tree.[139] Although it has been said that the apple story is a myth and that he did not arrive at his theory of gravity in any single moment,[140] acquaintances of Newton (such as William Stukeley, whose manuscript account of 1752 has been made available by the Royal Society) do in fact confirm the incident, though not the cartoon version that the apple actually hit Newton's head. Stukeley recorded in his Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's Life a conversation with Newton in Kensington on 15 April 1726:[141][142] we went into the garden, & drank thea under the shade of some appletrees; only he, & my self. amidst other discourse, he told me, he was just in the same situation, as when formerly, the notion of gravitation came into his mind. "why should that apple always descend perpendicularly to the ground," thought he to himself; occasion'd by the fall of an apple, as he sat in a contemplative mood. "why should it not go sideways, or upwards? but constantly to the earths center? assuredly, the reason is, that the earth draws it. there must be a drawing power in matter. & the sum of the drawing power in the matter of the earth must be in the earths center, not in any side of the earth. therefore dos this apple fall perpendicularly, or toward the center. if matter thus draws matter; it must be in proportion of its quantity. therefore the apple draws the earth, as well as the earth draws the apple. John Conduitt, Newton's assistant at the Royal Mint and husband of Newton's niece, also described the event when he wrote about Newton's life:[143] In the year 1666 he retired again from Cambridge to his mother in Lincolnshire. Whilst he was pensively meandering in a garden it came into his thought that the power of gravity (which brought an apple from a tree to the ground) was not limited to a certain distance from earth, but that this power must extend much further than was usually thought. Why not as high as the Moon said he to himself & if so, that must influence her motion & perhaps retain her in her orbit, whereupon he fell a calculating what would be the effect of that supposition. In similar terms, Voltaire wrote in his Essay on Epic Poetry (1727), "Sir Isaac Newton walking in his gardens, had the first thought of his system of gravitation, upon seeing an apple falling from a tree." It is known from his notebooks that Newton was grappling in the late 1660s with the idea that terrestrial gravity extends, in an inverse-square proportion, to the Moon; however it took him two decades to develop the full-fledged theory.[144] The question was not whether gravity existed, but whether it extended so far from Earth that it could also be the force holding the Moon to its orbit. Newton showed that if the force decreased as the inverse square of the distance, one could indeed calculate the Moon's orbital period, and get good agreement. He guessed the same force was responsible for other orbital motions, and hence named it "universal gravitation". Various trees are claimed to be "the" apple tree which Newton describes. The King's School, Grantham, claims that the tree was purchased by the school, uprooted and transported to the headmaster's garden some years later. The staff of the [now] National Trust-owned Woolsthorpe Manor dispute this, and claim that a tree present in their gardens is the one described by Newton. A descendant of the original tree[145] can be seen growing outside the main gate of Trinity College, Cambridge, below the room Newton lived in when he studied there. The National Fruit Collection at Brogdale[146] can supply grafts from their tree, which appears identical to Flower of Kent, a coarse-fleshed cooking variety.[147] Works See also: Writing of Principia Mathematica Published in his lifetime De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas (1669, published 1711) Method of Fluxions (1671) Of Natures Obvious Laws & Processes in Vegetation (unpublished, c. 1671–75)[148] De motu corporum in gyrum (1684) Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687) Opticks (1704) Reports as Master of the Mint (1701–25) Arithmetica Universalis (1707) Published posthumously The System of the World (1728) Optical Lectures (1728) The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended (1728) De mundi systemate (1728) Observations on Daniel and The Apocalypse of St. John (1733) Newton, Isaac (1991). Robinson, Arthur B., ed. Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel, and the Apocalypse of St. John. Cave Junction, Oregon: Oregon Institute of Science and Medicine. ISBN 0-942487-02-8. (A facsimile edition of the 1733 work.) An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture (1754) Johannes Hartlieb (ca. 1400–1468) Marsilio Ficino (1433–1499) Thomas Norton (1433–1513) Johann Georg Faust (ca. 1480-1540) Renaissance and Reformation Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) Pico della Mirandola (1463–1494) Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa (1486–1535) Paracelsus (1493–1541) Georg Pictorius (c. 1500-1569) Nostradamus (1503–1566) Johann Weyer (1516–1588) Thomas Charnock (1524–1581) Judah Loew ben Bezalel (1525–1609) John Dee (1527–1608) Giordano Bruno (1548–1600) Edward Kelley (1555–1597) Baroque period Basil Valentine (15th century- published since 1604) Nicolas Flamel (ca. 1330 or 1340- 1418?- published since 1612) Heinrich Khunrath (1560–1605) Michael Sendivogius (1566–1636) Tommaso Campanella (1568–1639) Jan Baptist van Helmont (1577–1644) Franz Kessler (1580–1650) Adrian von Mynsicht (1603–1638) Sir Kenelm Digby (1603–1665) Johann Friedrich Schweitzer (1625–1709) Isaac Newton (1643–1727), see Isaac Newton's occult studies The Fama Fraternitatis states that the Brothers of the Fraternity are to profess no other thing than "to cure the sick, and that gratis". The Rosicrucian spiritual path incorporates philosophy, kabbalah, and divine magic. The Order is symbolized by the rose (the soul) and the cross (the body). The unfolding rose represents the human soul acquiring greater consciousness while living in a body on the material plane. Bibliotheca Philosophica Hermetica or The Ritman Library is a private Dutch library founded by Joost Ritman. The Bibliotheca Philosophica Hermetica brings together manuscripts and printed works in the field of Hermeticism, more specifically the 'Christian-Hermetic' tradition. It is located on the Bloemstraat in the center of Amsterdam. Contents [hide] 1 The library 2 History 3 Future 4 See also 5 References 6 External links The library[edit] The Bibliotheca Philosophica Hermetica was founded in 1984 by Joost Ritman and is not linked to any public organisation or library. The Bibliotheca does co-operate with international libraries and organizations, such as the Russian Rudomino Library for Foreign Literature in Moscow, the Herzog August Bibliothek in Wolfenbüttel, the Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana in Florence, and the Biblioteca Marciana in Venice. To date, the library holds more than 23,000 volumes on Hermetica, Rosicrucianism, Alchemy, Mysticism, Gnosis & Esotericism and Comparative Religion, and has great scientific and artistic value. Other area's of the collection are Sufism, Kabbalah, Anthroposophy, Freemasonry, Judaica and Grail.[1] There are ca. 4,500 manuscripts and books printed before 1800, and ca. 17,000 books (primary and secondary sources) printed after 1800.[2] Among the treasures of the Bibliotheca Philosophica Hermetica are the Corpus Hermeticum published in 1471, the first illustrated edition of Dante's La Divina Commedia from 1481, and Cicero's De Officiis printed in 1465. History[edit] The founder of the library, Joost R. Ritman (1941), is an active Amsterdam business man with a deep interest in spirituality. He began collecting rare books at a young age, after his mother had presented him with a copy of a seventeenth-century edition of The Aurora, a work by Jacob Böhme, one of the authors who are a lasting source of inspiration to him. When he conceived the plan to turn his private collection of books into a library, his vision was to bring together under one roof manuscripts and printed works in the field of the Hermetic tradition, and to show the interrelatedness between the various collecting areas and their relevance for the present day. [3] Following a difficult year in the shadow of the financial crisis and cuts, The Ritman Library reopened its doors on December 16th 2011. [4] Future[edit] The library is currently focussing on reshaping the once privately funded library into a self-sustaining and public institution, and on preparing the move to the Huis met de Hoofden (House with the Heads) in the autumn of 2015. The originally private library therefore acquired the status of a Public Benefit Institution (ANBI).[5] With the rehousing to the Keizersgracht 123, a new era begins in which the library will be passed on to a new generation and made accessible to a broader audience Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn[edit] Main article: Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn Unlike the Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia, the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn was open to both sexes and treated them as equals. The Order was a specifically Hermetic society that taught alchemy, kabbalah, and the magic of Hermes, along with the principles of occult science. The Golden Dawn maintained the tightest of secrecy, which was enforced by severe penalties for those who disclosed its secrets. Overall, the general public was left oblivious of the actions, and even of the existence, of the Order, so few if any secrets were disclosed.[58] Its secrecy was broken first by Aleister Crowley in 1905 and later by Israel Regardie in 1940. Regardie gave a detailed account of the Order's teachings to the general public.[59] Regardie had once claimed that there were many occult orders which had learned whatever they knew of magic from what had been leaked from the Golden Dawn by those whom Regardie deemed "renegade members".[citation needed] The Stella Matutina was a successor society of the Golden Dawn. Esoteric Christianity[edit] Hermeticism remains influential within esoteric Christianity, especially in Martinism. Mystical Neopaganism[edit] Hermeticism remains influential within Neopaganism, especially in Hellenism. Etymology[edit] The term Hermetic is from the medieval Latin hermeticus, which is derived from the name of the Greek god, Hermes. In English, it has been attested since the 17th century, as in "Hermetic writers" (e.g., Franz Bardon). The word Hermetic was used by Dr. Everard in his English translation of The Pimander of Hermes (1650).[60] Mary Anne Atwood mentioned the use of the word Hermetic by Dufresnoy in 1386.[61][62] The synonymous term Hermetical is also attested in the 17th century. Sir Thomas Browne in his Religio Medici of 1643 wrote: "Now besides these particular and divided Spirits, there may be (for ought I know) a universal and common Spirit to the whole world. It was the opinion of Plato, and is yet of the Hermeticall Sara Allgood (1879–1950), Irish stage actress and later film actress in America Charles Henry Allan Bennett (1872–1923), best known for introducing Buddhism to the West Arnold Bennett (1867–1931), British novelist[38] Edward W. Berridge (ca. 1843–1923), British homeopathic physician[1]:148–149 Algernon Blackwood (1869–1951), English writer and radio broadcaster of supernatural stories[39] Anna de Brémont, American-born singer and writer.[40] Aleister Crowley (1875–1947), occultist, writer and mountaineer, founder of his own magical society.[39] Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (1859-1930), author of Sherlock Holmes, doctor, scientist, and Spiritualist.[41] Florence Farr (1860–1917), London stage actress and musician[39] Robert Felkin (1853–1925), medical missionary, explorer and anthropologist in Central Africa, author Dion Fortune was not an original member of the Golden Dawn, rather a member of the offshoot Golden Dawn order the Stella Matutina. Dion Fortune Founded the Society of Inner Light. Frederick Leigh Gardner (1857–1930), British stock broker and occultist; published three-volume bibliography Catalogue Raisonné of Works on the Occult Sciences (1912)[42] Maud Gonne (1866–1953), Irish revolutionary, actress. Annie Horniman (1860–1937), British repertory theatre producer and pioneer; member of the wealthy Horniman family of tea-traders[39] Arthur Machen (1863–1947), leading London writer of the 1890s, author of acclaimed works of imaginative and occult fiction, such as "The Great God Pan", "The White People" and "The Hill of Dreams". Welsh by birth and upbringing. Gustav Meyrink (1868–1932), Austrian author, storyteller, dramatist, translator, banker, and Buddhist E. Nesbit (1858–1924), real name Edith Bland; English author and political activist Israel Regardie was not a member of the original Golden Dawn, but rather of the Stella Matutina, which he claimed was as close to the original order as could be found in the early 1930s (when he was initiated). Regardie wrote many respected and acclaimed books about magic and the Golden Dawn Order, including The Golden Dawn, The Tree Of Life, Middle Pillar, and A Garden of Pomegranates. Sax Rohmer, novelist, creator of the Fu Manchu character Charles Rosher (1885–1974), British cinematographer Pamela Colman Smith (1878–1951), British-American artist and co-creator of the Rider-Waite Tarot deck William Sharp (1855–1905), poet and author; alias Fiona MacLeod Bram Stoker[43][44] (1847–1912), Irish writer best-known today for his 1897 horror novel Dracula John Todhunter (1839–1916), Aktis Heliou Irish poet and playwright who wrote seven volumes of poetry, and several plays Violet Tweedale (1862–1936), author. Evelyn Underhill (1875–1941), British Christian mystic, author of Mysticism: A Study in Nature and Development of Spiritual Consciousness Charles Williams (1886–1945), British poet, novelist, theologian, and literary critic A. E. Waite (1857–1942), British-American author, Freemason and co-creator of the Rider-Waite Tarot deck[39] W. B. Yeats (1865–1939), Irish poet, dramatist, and writer. Contemporary Golden Dawn orders[edit] While no temples in the original chartered lineage of the Golden Dawn survived past the 1970s,[33][34] several organizations have since revived its teachings and rituals. Among these, the following are notable: The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, Inc. The Open Source Order of the Golden Dawn Sodalitas Rosae+Crucis et Solis Alati Orden Hermética de la Aurora Dorada 1 Chayot HaKodesh[1] See Book of Ezekiel chs. 1 and 10 2 Ophanim See Ezekiel chs. 1 and 10 3 Erelim See Book of Isaiah 33:7 4 Hashmallim See Ezekiel 1:4 5 Seraphim See Isaiah 6 6 Malakim Messengers, angels 7 Elohim "Godly beings" 8 Bene Elohim "Sons of Godly beings" 9 Cherubim See Talmud Hagigah 10 Ishim "manlike beings", see Book of Genesis 18:2 Book of Daniel 10:5 Kabbalah[edit] The Sephirot in Jewish Kabbalah The Sefirot in Jewish Kabbalah View the image description page for this diagram Category:Sephirot v t e According to the Golden Dawn's interpretation of the Kabbalah, there are ten archangels, each commanding one of the choirs of angels and corresponding to one of the Sephirot. It is similar to the Jewish angelic hierarchy.[2] Rank Choir of Angels Translation Archangel Sephirah 1 Hayot Ha Kodesh Holy Living Ones Metatron Keter 2 Ophanim Wheels Raziel Chokmah 3 Erelim Brave ones[3] Tzaphkiel Binah 4 Hashmallim Glowing ones, Amber ones[4] Tzadkiel Chesed 5 Seraphim Burning Ones Khamael Gevurah 6 Malakim Messengers, angels Raphael Tipheret 7 Elohim Godly Beings Haniel Netzach 8 Bene Elohim Sons of Elohim Michael Hod 9 Cherubim [5] Gabriel Yesod 10 Ashim Men (man-like beings, phonetically similar to "fires") Sandalphon Malkuth Main article: The Lesser Key of Solomon The Lesser Key of Solomon or Lemegeton Clavicula Salomonis is an anonymous 17th century grimoire, and one of the most popular books of demonology. The Lesser Key of Solomon contains detailed descriptions of spirits and the conjurations needed to invoke and oblige them to do the will of the conjurer (referred to as the "exorcist"). It details the protective signs and rituals to be performed, the actions necessary to prevent the spirits from gaining control, the preparations prior to the invocations, and instructions on how to make the necessary instruments for the execution of these rituals. The author of The Lesser Key of Solomon copied Pseudomonarchia Daemonum almost completely, but added demons' descriptions, their seals and details. The Ars Goetia[edit] See List of demons in the Ars Goetia Ars Goetia is the first section of The Lesser Key of Solomon, containing descriptions of the seventy-two demons that King Solomon is said to have evoked and confined in a bronze vessel sealed by magic symbols, and that he obliged to work for him. The Ars Goetia assigns a rank and a title of nobility to each member of the infernal hierarchy, and gives the demons "signs they have to pay allegiance to", or seals. Dictionnaire Infernal[edit] Main article: Dictionnaire Infernal The Dictionnaire Infernal (English: Infernal Dictionary) is a book on demonology, organised in hellish hierarchies. It was written by Jacques Auguste Simon Collin de Plancy and first published in 1818. There were several editions of the book, but perhaps the most famous is the edition of 1863, in which sixty-nine illustrations were added to the book. These illustrations are drawings which depict the descriptions of the appearance of a number of demons. Many of these images were later used in S. L. MacGregor Mathers's edition of The Lesser Key of Solomon though some of the images were removed. The book was first published in 1818 and then divided into two volumes, with six reprints and many changes between 1818 and 1863. This book attempts to provide an account of all the knowledge concerning superstitions and demonology. De Plancy presented a hierarchy of demons based in modern European courts: Princes and dignitaries: Belzebuth, supreme chief of the empire of hell, founder of the order of the Fly. Satan, prince dethroned and chief of the opposition party. Eurynome,[17] prince of death, Grand Cross of the order of the Fly. Moloch, prince of the country of tears, Grand Cross of the order. Pluton, Prince of Fire, also Grand Cross of the order and governor of the regions in flames. Pan, prince of incubi and Lilith, princess of succubi. Leonardo, the great lord of the Sabbath, Knight of the Fly. Balberith, great pontiff, lord of alliances. Proserpina, archdiablesse, princess of evil spirits. Ministers of the Office: Adramelech, Grand Chancellor and Grand Cross of the Order of the Fly. Ashtaroth, general treasurer, Knight of the Fly. Nergal, chief of the secret police. Baal, commander in chief of the armies of Hell, Grand Cross of the Order of the Fly. Leviathan, Grand Admiral, Knight of the Fly. Ambassadors: Belfegor, Ambassador of France. Mammon, of England. Belial, of Italy. Rimmon, of Russia. Thamuz, of Spain. Hutgin, of Turkey. Martinet, of Switzerland. Justice: Lucifer, chief of justice, Knight of the Fly. Alastor, executor of his sentences. House of the princes: Verdelet, master of ceremonies. Succor Benoth, chief of the eunuchs of the seraglio. Chamos, Grand Chambelain, Knight of the Fly. Melchom, payer treasurer. Nisroth, chief of the kitchen. Behemoth, chief cupbearer. Dagon, grand pantler. Mullin, first valet. Secret expenses: Robals, director of theaters. Asmodeus, superintendent of the gambling houses. Nibas grand buffoon. Antichrist, charlatan and necromancer. Alexis-Vincent-Charles Berbiguier used some of these names and ranks for the demons who tormented him, in his autobiographical work Les farfadets ou Tous les Basil of Caesarea also who wrote on this subject. He believed that demons, to materialize, had to condense vapors and with them form the body of a person or animal, then entering that body as if it were a puppet to which they gave life. Henry More supported this idea, saying that their bodies were cold due to the solidification of water vapor to form them (see below). Many authors believed that demons could assume the shape of an animal. Raoul Glaber, a monk of Saint-Léger, Belgium, seems to have been the first in writing about the visit of a demon of horrible aspect in his Historiarum sui temporis, Libri quinque (History of his Time in Five Books). Augustine thought that demons often were imaginary, but sometimes could enter human bodies, but later accepted the idea of the materialization of demons. Thomas Aquinas followed Augustine's idea, but added that demonic materialization had sexual connotations because demons tried to seduce people to commit sexual sins. Ambrogio de Vignati, disagreeing with other authors, asserted that demons, besides of not to have a material body could not create it, and all what they seemed to do was a mere hallucination provoked by them in the mind of those who had made a diabolical pact or were "victims" of a succubus or incubus, including the sexual act. Sexuality[edit] Further information: Sexuality in Christian demonology Demons are generally considered sexless as they have no physical bodies, but different kinds are generally associated with one gender or another. Many theologians agreed that demons acted first as succubi to collect sperm from men and then as incubi to put it into a woman's vagina.[12] But as many of them agreed also that demons' bodies were icy,[citation needed] they reached the conclusion that the frozen sperm taken first from a man could not have generative qualities.[citation needed] Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas wrote that demons acted in this way but could fecundate women. Ulrich Molitor and Nicholas Remy disagreed that women could be impregnated; besides, Remy thought that a woman could never be fecundated by another being than a man. Heinrich Kramer (author of the Malleus Maleficarum) adopted again an intermediate position; he wrote that demons acted first as succubae and then as incubi,[13] but added the possibility that incubi could receive semen from succubi, but he considered that this sperm could not fecundate women. Peter of Paluda and Martin of Arles among others supported the idea that demons could take sperm from dead men and impregnate women. Some demonologists thought that demons could take semen from dying or recently deceased men, and thus dead men should be buried as soon as possible to avoid it. Diabolical symbols[edit] Inspired by the Book of Revelation 13:18 the number 666 (the Number of the second Beast) was attributed to the Antichrist and to the Devil. According to medieval grimoires, demons each have a diabolical signature or seal with which they sign diabolical pacts. These seals can also be used by a conjurer to summon and control the demons. The seals of a variety of demons are given in grimoires such as The Great Book of Saint Cyprian, Le Dragon Rouge and The Lesser Key of Solomon. The pentagram, which has been used with various meanings in many cultures (including Christianity, in which it denoted the five wounds of Christ), is sometimes considered a diabolical sign when inverted (one point downwards, two points up). Such a symbol may appear with or without a surrounding circle, and sometimes contains the head of a male goat, with the horns fitting into the upper points of the star, the ears into the side points, the beard into the lowest one, and the face into the central pentagon. An inverted (upside-down) cross (particularly the crucifix) has also been considered a symbol of both the Devil and the Antichrist, although in Catholic tradition a plain inverted cross (without the corpus or figure of Christ) is a symbol of Saint Peter. See: Cross of St. Peter Other views[edit] Not all Christians believe that demons exist in the literal sense. There is the view that the New Testament language of exorcism is an example of the language of the day being employed to describe the healings of what today would be classified as epilepsy, mental illness etc.[14] Sacrifice is an element in many religious traditions and often represented in myths. In The Oxford Companion to World Mythology, David Leeming lists the story of Abraham and Isaac and the story of Christ's death as examples of this theme.[115] Wendy Doniger describes the gospel accounts as a "meta-myth" in which Jesus realizes that he is part of a "new myth [...] of a man who is sacrificed in hate" but "sees the inner myth, the old myth of origins and acceptance, the myth of a god who sacrifices himself in love".[116] Attitudes toward time[edit] One traditional depiction of the cherubim and chariot vision, based on the description by Ezekiel. According to Mircea Eliade, many traditional societies have a cyclic sense of time, periodically reenacting mythical events.[117] Through this reenactment, these societies achieve an "eternal return" to the mythical age.[118] According to Eliade, Christianity retains a sense of cyclical time, through the ritual commemoration of Christ's life and the imitation of Christ's actions; Eliade calls this sense of cyclical time a "mythical aspect" of Christianity.[119] However, Judeo-Christian thought also makes an "innovation of the first importance", Eliade says, because it embraces the notion of linear, historical time; in Christianity, "time is no longer [only] the circular Time of the Eternal Return; it has become linear and irreversible Time".[120] Summarizing Eliade's statements on this subject, Eric Rust writes, "A new religious structure became available. In the Judaeo-Christian religions—Judaism, Christianity, Islam—history is taken seriously, and linear time is accepted. [...] The Christian myth gives such time a beginning in creation, a center in the Christ-event, and an end in the final consummation."[121] Heinrich Zimmer also notes Christianity's emphasis on linear time; he attributes this emphasis specifically to the influence of Saint Augustine's theory of history.[122] Zimmer does not explicitly describe the cyclical conception of time as itself "mythical" per se, although he notes that this conception "underl[ies] Hindu mythology".[123] Neil Forsyth writes that "what distinguishes both Jewish and Christian religious systems [...] is that they elevate to the sacred status of myth narratives that are situated in historical time".[124] Legacy[edit] Concepts of progress[edit] According to Carl Mitcham, "the Christian mythology of progress toward transcendent salvation" created the conditions for modern ideas of scientific and technological progress.[125] Hayden White describes "the myth of Progress" as the "secular, Enlightenment counterpart" of "Christian myth".[126] Reinhold Niebuhr described the modern idea of ethical and scientific progress as "really a rationalized version of the Christian myth of salvation".[127] Political and philosophical ideas[edit] According to Mircea Eliade, the medieval "Gioacchinian myth [...] of universal renovation in a more or less imminent future" has influenced a number of modern theories of history, such as those of Lessing (who explicitly compares his views to those of medieval "enthusiasts"), Fichte, Hegel, and Schelling, and has also influenced a number of Russian writers.[76] Calling Marxism "a truly messianic Judaeo-Christian ideology", Eliade writes that Marxism "takes up and carries on one of the great eschatological myths of the Middle Eastern and Mediterranean world, namely: the redemptive part to be played by the Just (the 'elect', the 'anointed', the 'innocent', the 'missioners', in our own days the proletariat), whose sufferings are invoked to change the ontological status of the world".[128] In his article "The Christian Mythology of Socialism", Will Herberg argues that socialism inherits the structure of its ideology from the influence of Christian mythology upon western thought.[129] In The Oxford Companion to World Mythology, David Leeming claims that Judeo-Christian messianic ideas have influenced 20th-century totalitarian systems, citing Soviet Communism as an example.[130] According to Hugh S. Pyper, the biblical "founding myths of the Exodus and the exile, read as stories in which a nation is forged by maintaining its ideological and racial purity in the face of an oppressive great power", entered "the rhetoric of nationalism throughout European history", especially in Protestant countries and smaller nations.[131] Christmas stories in popular culture[edit] See Secular Christmas stories, Christmas in the media and Christmas in literature. Main article: Ecumenism Ecumenical worship service at the monastery of Taizé in France Christian groups and denominations have long expressed ideals of being reconciled, and in the 20th century, Christian ecumenism advanced in two ways.[329] One way was greater cooperation between groups, such as the Edinburgh Missionary Conference of Protestants in 1910, the Justice, Peace and Creation Commission of the World Council of Churches founded in 1948 by Protestant and Orthodox churches, and similar national councils like the National Council of Churches in Australia which includes Roman Catholics.[329] The other way was institutional union with new United and uniting churches. Congregationalist, Methodist and Presbyterian churches united in 1925 to form the United Church of Canada,[330] and in 1977 to form the Uniting Church in Australia. The Church of South India was formed in 1947 by the union of Anglican, Baptist, Methodist, Congregationalist, and Presbyterian churches.[331] The ecumenical, monastic Taizé Community is notable for being composed of more than one hundred brothers from Protestant and Catholic traditions.[332] The community emphasizes the reconciliation of all denominations and its main church, located in Taizé, Saône-et-Loire, France, is named the "Church of Reconciliation".[332] The community is internationally known, attracting over 100,000 young pilgrims annually.[333] Steps towards reconciliation on a global level were taken in 1965 by the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches mutually revoking the excommunications that marked their Great Schism in 1054;[334] the Anglican Roman Catholic International Commission (ARCIC) working towards full communion between those churches since 1970;[335] and some Lutheran and Roman Catholic churches signing the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification in 1999 to address conflicts at the root of the Protestant Reformation. In 2006, the World Methodist Council, representing all Methodist denominations, adopted the declaration.[336] Criticism and apologetics Main articles: Criticism of Christianity and Christian apologetics A copy of the Summa Theologica, a famous Christian apologetic work. Criticism of Christianity and Christians goes back to the Apostolic age, with the New Testament recording friction between the followers of Jesus and the Pharisees and scribes (e.g. Matthew 15:1-20 and Mark 7:1–23).[337] In the 2nd century, Christianity was criticized by the Jews on various grounds, e.g. that the prophecies of the Hebrew Bible could not have been fulfilled by Jesus, given that he did not have a successful life.[338] By the 3rd century, criticism of Christianity had mounted, partly as a defense against it, and the 15-volume Adversus Christianos by Porphyry was written as a comprehensive attack on Christianity, in part building on the pre-Christian concepts of Plotinus.[339][340] By the 12th century, the Mishneh Torah (i.e., Rabbi Moses Maimonides) was criticizing Christianity on the grounds of idol worship, in that Christians attributed divinity to Jesus who had a physical body.[341] In the 19th century, Nietzsche began to write a series of polemics on the "unnatural" teachings of Christianity (e.g. sexual abstinence), and continued his criticism of Christianity to the end of his life.[342] In the 20th century, the philosopher Bertrand Russell expressed his criticism of Christianity in Why I Am Not a Christian, formulating his rejection of Christianity in the setting of logical arguments.[343] Criticism of Christianity continues to date, e.g. Jewish and Muslim theologians criticize the doctrine of the Trinity held by most Christians, stating that this doctrine in effect assumes that there are three Gods, running against the basic tenet of monotheism.[344] New Testament scholar Robert M. Price has outlined the possibility that some Bible stories are based partly on myth in "The Christ Myth Theory and its problems".[345] Naoko Nozawa ???? O edit Takashi Obitani ???? Ogi Yahagi ????? Hiroaki Ogi ???? Ken Yahagi ??? Local Oka ????? Ijiri Okada ?????? Okami Shonen ?????? Oki Kodama Hibiki ?????•??? Ichiro Okuma ?????? Jimmy Onishi ????? Or Cs ???? Kayoko Okubo ?????? Yasuko Mitsu ura ???? Oriental Radio ????????? Atsuhiko Nakata ???? Shingo Fujimori ???? Othello ??? Tomoko Nakajima ???? Nahomi Matsushima ???? Oxygen ?????? Hideo Oyama ???? P edit Pa kkun Ma kkun ???????? Pakkun ???? Makkun ???? Patapata Mama ?????? Patch Work ?????? Punk Bu Bu ??????? Parachute Butai ???????? Peace ??? Zenji Peking ?????? Penalty ????? Wacky ???? Hide ?? Pink no Denwa ?????? Pirates ????? The Plan ?•??? Plus Minus ??????? POISON GIRL BAND Pu & Mu ??&?? Puppet Muppet ???????? R edit Rahmens ????? Jin Katagiri ??? Kentaro Kobayashi ????? Randys ?????? Razor Ramon ??????? 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Shinagawa Shoji ???? Hiroshi Shinagawa ??? Tomoharu Shoji ???? Shio Kosho ????? Shizuru ??? Sho Hunting ??????? Nikaku Shofukutei ????? Shohei Shofukutei ????? Tsurube Shofukutei ????? Atom Shukugawa ????? Showa Noiru Koiru ?????•??? Slim Club ?????? Ken Maeda ??? ? Masanari Uchima ?? ?? Smiley Kikuchi ???????? Sonomanma Higashi ?????? Speed Wagon ??????? Jun Itoda ???? Kazuhiro Ozawa ???? Streak ????? Tomu Suetaka ???? Summers ???~? Kazuki Otake ???? Masakazu Mimura ?????? Shinji Suwa ???? T edit Saburo Taihei ?????? Shiro Taihei ????? Taizo ???? Taka and Toshi ??????? Junji Takada ???? Bu Takagi ???? Casey Takamine ?????? Takeshi Gundan ????? Take Tamori ??? Kei Tani ?? Tanoshingo ???? Kenji Tamura ?????? Tanaka Kosaka ???? Yoshie Tanoue ????? Masashi Tashiro ????? Tashiro ?? Danshi Tatekawa ???? Tekken ?? Tenshin ?? Tent ??? Tetsu and Tomo ??and?? TIM Red Yoshida ????? Golgo Matsumoto ????? Time Machine San go ??????? ? TKO Takehiro Kimoto ???? Takayuki Kinoshita ???? Tobi ishi Renkyu ???? George Tokoro ????? Tokyo Dynamite ???????? Tokyo ?? Cozy Tomita ?????? Tommys ???? Tonny Tani ???? Tomochika ?? Tomoike Nakabayashi ???? Tomonori Jinnai ???? Total Tenbosch ???????? The Touch ?•??? Minoru Torihada ??? Toro Salmon ?????? Oniyakko Tsubaki ??? Shiro Tsubuyaki ??????? Shigeo Tsujimoto ???? Edamame Tsumami ????? Tunnels ????? Takaaki Ishibashi ???? Norisuke Kinashi ???? Tutorial ??????? Tenjikunezumi ??? U edit Katsunori Uchiba ???? Hitoshi Ueki ??? Koichi Ukawa ???? Unabara Yasuyo Tomoko ?????•??? Yasuyo Unabara ????? Tomoko Unabara ????? Unbalance ?????? Ungirls ?????? Takushi Tanaka ???? Yoshiaki Yamane ???? UN JASH ??????? Ken Watabe ??? Kazuya Kojima ???? U ji Koji U??? Untouchable ???????? Hidetsugu Shibata ???? Hironari Yamazaki ???? Up down ?????? Takumi Takemori ??? Hiroki Abe ?? ?? U tchan Nan chan ?????????? Teruyoshi Uchimura ???? Kiyotaka Nanbara ???? Utopia ????? V edit Vickys ????? Viking ????? W edit Wagaya ??? Osamu Wakai ????? Warai Meshi ??? Y edit Hanako Yamada ???? Hosei Yamasaki ???? Passion Yara ??????? Yarusenasu ????? Yasei Bakudan ???? Yasu Kiyo ???? Yasushi Yokoyama ????? Kiyoshi Nishikawa ????? Shin nosuke Yasuo ????? Yasuda Dai Circus ??????? Yoiko ??? Masaru Hamaguchi ??? Shin ya Arino ???? Yokoyama Hot Brothers ?????????? Knock Yokoyama ????? Hiro Yoshida ???? Itoshi Yumeji ????? Yurioka Cho Tokkyu ??????Q Yutaro ????? Z edit Zenjiro ????? Idols male edit MR Chip Daiki Arioka Goro Inagaki Hikaru Yaotome Hiroki Uchi Jin Akanishi Jun Matsumoto Junnosuke Taguchi Junichi Okada Kanata Hongo Katori Shingo Kazunari Ninomiya Kazuya Kamenashi Kei Inoo Keiichiro Koyama Keita Tachibana Keito Okamoto Kimura Takuya Koichi Domoto Koike Teppei Kota Yabu Kusano Hironori Masahiro Nakai Masaki Aiba Ryutaro Morimoto Shingo Murakami Ryo Nishikido Ryohei Chiba Ryuichi Ogata Ryosuke Yamada Satoshi Ohno Shigeaki Kato Shingo Murakami Shintaro Morimoto Sho Sakurai Shota Yasuda Subaru Shibutani Takahisa Masuda Tanaka Koki Tatsuya Ueda Tsuyoshi Domoto Tsuyoshi Kusanagi Tomohisa Yamashita Toma Ikuta Yu Yokoyama Yuichi Nakamaru Yuma Nakayama Yuto Nakajima Yuuri Chinen Yuya Tegoshi Yuya Takaki Idols female edit Kanako Momota Shiori Tamai Ayaka Sasaki Momoka Ariyasu Reni Takagi Akiyama Rina Airi & Meiri Aya Ueto Koike Eiko Nakagawa Shoko Natsukawa Jun Uehara Takako Yamamoto Azusa Maeda Atsuko Oshima Yuko Itano Tomomi Chise Nakamura Haruna Iikubo Haruka Kudo Ayumi Ishida Masaki Sato Mizuki Fukumura Erina Ikuta Riho Sayashi Kanon Suzuki Umika Kawashima Sayumi Michishige Kusumi Koharu Erina Mano Aya Matsuura Yuki Kashiwagi Mayu Watanabe Jurina Matsui Rena Matsui Minami Takahashi Minami Minegishi Haruna Kojima Aki Takajo Mariko Shinoda Akimoto Sayaka Tomomi Kasai Rie Kitahara Rino Sashihara Models edit Aki Hoshino Riyo Mori Ebihara Yuri Fujiwara Norika Horiuchi Yoko Inoue Waka Mariya Nishiuchi May J Meisa Kuroki Oshikiri Moe Umemiya Anna Yamada Yu Josh Snow Kanata Hongo Tao Okamoto Suzuka Morita Oishi Megumi Musicians Singers male edit Eiichi Ohtaki Eikichi Yazawa Gackt Haruomi Hosono hide Hiromi Go Kiyoshiro Imawano Hideaki Tokunaga Hyde Kazumasa Oda Keisuke Kuwata Koshi Inaba Koji Tamaki Kyosuke Himuro Miyavi Noriyuki Makihara Ryuichi Sakamoto Saijo Hideki Takanori Nishikawa Tamio Okuda Tatsuya Ishii Tatsuro Yamashita Tomoyasu Hotei Toshi Kubota Toshiki Kadomatsu Yasuyuki Okamura Yoshiki Yosui Inoue Yukihiro Takahashi Musicians Singers female edit Ai Otsuka Ai Takahashi Aiko Kayo Akiko Wada Alisa Durbrow Angela Aki Anna Tsuchiya Airi Suzuki ARIA Asami Fujimura Aya Hirano Aya Matsuura Aya Ueto Ayaka Hirahara Ayaka Komatsu Ayaka Ayumi Hamasaki Ayumi Kinoshita Beni Arashiro Bonnie Pink Chiaki Kuriyama Chihiro Onitsuka Chisaki Hama Chitose Hajime Crystal Kay Erika Sawajiri Emi Hinouchi Emi Maria Emyli Garnet Crow Goto Maki Hagiwara Mai Halna Hikaru Nishida Hiro Hiroko Anzai Hiroko Shimabukuro hitomi Ikue Sakakibara Imai Eriko JASMINE JAMOSA Jhené Aiko Jun Natsukawa Junko Sakurada JYONGRI Kiyoe Yoshioka Kanako Enomoto Kanbe Miyuki Kanon Wakeshima Kawabe Chieco Kawase Tomoko Keiko Kitagawa Kia Sakara Kumi Koda Kusumi Koharu Lia Lisa Yamaguchi Maaya Sakamoto Maeda Atsuko May J Mari Amachi Masako Mori Meisa Kuroki Megumi Odaka Megumi Megumi Hayashibara Melody Mew Azama MiCHi Mihiro Taniguchi Miho Komatsu Miho Nakayama Miho Yoshioka Miki Fujimoto Miliyah Kato MINMI Miyu Sawai Mizuki Nana Momoe Yamaguchi Myco Mika Nakashima Namie Amuro Natsuyaki Miyabi Noriko Sakai Reina Tanaka Reon Kadena Ribbon Ryoko Hirosue Saori Minami Sayaka Sayumi Michishige Seiko Matsuda Shoko Nakagawa Takako Ohta Takako Uehara Thelma Aoyama Tomomi Itano Tsugunaga Momoko Utada Hikaru Waka Inoue Yui Yui Makino Yukiko Okada Yuko Ogura Yuna Ito Tarento edit Aya Ueto Becky Kazushige Nagashima Kano sisters Obi Tenaka Mina Fukui Momoiro Clover Z Actors edit Main article List of Japanese actors Eita Kamakari Kenta Fujiwara Tatsuya Ishihara Yujiro Ikuta Toma Matsudaira Ken Shun Oguri Ryuhei Matsuda Takeru Satoh Seto Koji Satoshi Tsumabuki Shota Matsuda Ken Watanabe A edit Hiroshi Abe Tsuyoshi Abe Asahi Uchida Aiba Hiroki Kazuyuki Aijima Show Aikawa Akanishi Jin Kousei Amano Anan Kenji Masanobu Ando Aoyama Sota Arai Hirofumi Hirofumi Araki Arata Asano Tadanobu Kai Ato Atsumi Kiyoshi B edit Ban Daisuke Bando Eiji C edit Sonny Chiba Shinichi Chiba Chishu Ryu D edit Tsuyoshi Domoto Koichi Domoto E edit Eita Eguchi Yosuke Endo Kenichi Enomoto Kenichi F edit Tatsuya Fuji Fujimoto Takahiro Fujioka Hiroshi Fujita Makoto Fujiwara Tatsuya Fukikoshi Mitsuru Seizo Fukumoto Fukuyama Masaharu Akira Fuse G edit H edit Takashi Hagino Hagiwara Masato Kento Handa Harada Yoshio Hideji Otaki Higashi Sonomanma Hirata Hiroaki Hiro Mizushima Hiroshi Tamaki Hiroya Matsumoto Takahiro Hojo Hongo Kanata Horie Kei Horiuchi Masami Shigeki Hosokawa I edit Ichikawa Raizo Ichikawa Utaemon Ikariya Chosuke Ikebe Ryo Ikuta Toma Inoue Mao Isaka Tatsuya Iseya Yusuke Renji Ishibashi Ishibashi Ryo Ishida Takuya Ishihara Yujiro Ishikura Saburo Atsushi Ito Shigeru Izumiya J edit K edit Takeshi Kaga Kagawa Teruyuki Kamenashi Kazuya Masaki Kaji Bando Kakitsu I Kenta Kamakari Yusuke Kamiji Ryunosuke Kamiki Ryuji Kamiyama Kaname Jun Miyuki Kanbe Kane Kosugi Kaneshiro Takeshi Mitsuru Karahashi Kenzie Taylor Tsurutaro Kataoka Kazuki Kato Katori Shingo Ryo Katsuji Kazama Morio Kazunari Ninomiya Kazuya Kamenashi Keaton Yamada Ken Watanabe Kenichi Matsuyama Kimura Takuya Kishi Yuji Shin Kishida Kitamura Eiki Takeshi Kitano Kobayashi Akira Kaoru Kobayashi Kobayashi Keiju Masahiro Kobayashi actor Masahiro Kobayashi director Kobayashi Nenji Koki Tanaka Koike Teppei Koyuki Yoshikazu Kotani Kubozuka Yousuke Kurata Yasuaki L edit M edit Maeda Atsuko Maruse Taro Masanobu Ando Masahiko Kondo Masuda Takahisa Matsuda Kenji Matsuda Ryuhei Matsuda Shota Ken Matsudaira Yusaku Matsuda Matsukata Hiroki Matsukawa Naruki Matsumoto Jun Kenichi Matsuyama Takashi Matsuyama Toshiro Mifune Akifumi Miura Miura Haruma Miura Tomokazu Miyaguchi Seiji Yuya Miyashita Miyavi Hiro Mizushima Ryoji Morimoto Morishige Hisaya Moriyama Mirai Motoki Masahiro Hiroaki Murakami Murata Kazumi N edit Anzu Nagai Nagase Masatoshi Akira Nagata Nagayama Takashi Nakadai Tatsuya Kiichi Nakai Nakai Masahiro Nakamaru Yuichi Katsuo Nakamura Yuichi Nakamura actor Yuichi Nakamura voice actor Narimiya Hiroki Nezu Jinpachi Nishida Toshiyuki Hidetoshi Nishijima Nishikido Ryo Nishimura Masahiko O edit Oda Yuji Joe Odagiri Ogata Ken Oguri Shun Suzuka Ohgo Oizumi You Masumi Okada Masi Oka Okochi Denjiro Okuchi Kengo Oshinari Shugo Osugi Ren P edit Q edit R edit Ryohei Odai Ryu Kohata S edit Saito Takumi Sakai Masato Sanada Hiroyuki Sandayu Dokumamushi Takashi Sasano Koichi Sato Sato Takeru Yuki Sato Kenta Satoi Kotaro Satomi Sawaki Tetsu Sawamura Ikki Seto Koji Jyoji Shibue Shimomoto Shiro Shimura Takashi Shin Koyamada Shinjiro Atae Shirota Yuu Shishido Jo Shoei Sorimachi Takashi Takamasa Suga Sugi Ryotaro Hiroki Suzuki Shogo Yamaguchi T edit Takizawa Hideaki Taguchi Tomorowo Taguchi Junnosuke Tak Sakaguchi Takahashi Hideki Takakura Ken Takaoka Sosuke Takashima Masahiro Takashima Masanobu Kaku Takashina Tetsuya Takeda Takenaka Naoto Takenouchi Yutaka Takeshi Kaneshiro Tamba Tetsuro Tamba Yoshitaka Tamayama Tetsuji Tamura Masakazu Ryo Tamura Tanabe Seiichi


abby-lane abby-rode abigail-clayton ada-tauler addie-juniper addison-cain adele-wiesenthal adeline-lange adeline-pollicina adriana-amante adrianna-laurenti adrianna-russo agnes agnes-ardant agnes-zalontai aimee-addison aisha-sun aja aleena-ferari alessandra-schiavo aletta-ocean alexandra-nice alexandria-cass alexa-parks alex-dane alex-foxe alexia-knight alexis-devell alexis-firestone alexis-greco alexis-payne alexis-x alex-storm alex-white aliana-love alice-springs alicia-alighatti alicia-monet alicia-rio alicyn-sterling alighiera-olena ali-moore aline-santos alissa-ashley allysin-chaynes alysin-embers alyssa-love alyssa-reece amanda-addams amanda-blake amanda-blue amanda-jane-adams amanda-rae amanda-stone amanda-tyler amber-hunt amberlina-lynn amber-lynn amber-michaels amber-peach amber-wild amber-woods ambrosia-fox amia-miley ami-rodgers amy-allison amy-brooke amy-rose amy-starz anastasia-christ anastasia-sands andrea-adams andrea-brittian andrea-lange andrea-true andy angel 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carmel-nougat carmen-blonde carmen-de-la-torre carmen-moore carmen-rose carol-connors carol-cross carol-cummings carole-dubois carole-gire carole-pierac carol-titian carolyn-connoly carolyn-monroe carrie-cruise cassandra-leigh cassidy cassie-courtland cataline-bullock catherine-count catherine-crystal catherine-ringer catherine-tailleferre cathy-delorme cathy-menard cathy-stewart celeste-fox celine-gallone chanel-preston chanel-price chantal-virapin chanta-rose chantelle-stevens charisma charisma-cole charlie-latour charlie-waters charlotte-de-castille charmane-star chasey-lain chayse-manhattan chaz-vincent chelsea-sinclaire chennin-blanc cheri-janvier cheri-taylor cherry-hill chessie-moore cheyenne-hunter cheyenne-silver china-lee china-leigh china-moon chloe-cruize chloe-dior chloe-kez chloe-stevens chris-collins chris-jordan chris-petersen chrissie-beauchamp christa-abel christa-ludwig christie-ford christi-lake christina-berg christina-blond christina-evol christina-skye christine-black christine-chavert christine-neona christine-rigoler christy-canyon cicciolina cindi-stephens cindy-carver cindy-crawford cindy-more cindy-shepard cindy-wong cinthya-marinho clair-dia claire-robbins claude-janna claudia-jackson claudia-jamsson claudia-mehringer claudia-nero claudia-van-statt claudia-zante claudine-beccarie clea-carson cleo-nichole cleo-patra cody-lane cody-love cody-nicole coffee-brown colleen-brennan connie-bennett connie-peterson constance-money copper-penny coreena corey-everson corinne-lemoine corneliah cory-everson cory-wolf courtney courtney-cummz courtney-james cris-cassidy crissy-moran cris-taliana crystal-breeze crystal-dawn crystal-holland crystal-knight crystal-lake crystal-lovin crystal-sync csilla-kalnay cuban-bee cynara-fox cyndee-summers cynthia-black cynthia-brooks cynthia-hammers cynthia-lavigne dagmar-lost daisy-layne dallas-miko dana-dylan dana-lynn danica-rhea daniela-nanou daniela-schiffer daniele-troeger daniella daniella-schiffer danielle danielle-foxxx danielle-rodgers danny-ricci danyel-cheeks daphne daphne-rosen darby-lloyd-rains darla-crane darla-delovely davia-ardell dayton-rain debbie-northrup debbie-revenge debbie-van-gils debi-diamond debi-jointed debra-lynn deidra-hopkins deidre-holland delania-raffino delia-moore delphine-thail delta-force delta-white demi-moor denice-klarskov denise-derringer denise-dior denise-sloan desiree-cousteau desiree-foxx desiree-lane desiree-west deva-station devin-devasquez devinn-lane devon-shire dia diana-holt diana-kisabonyi diana-siefert diana-stevenson diane-dubois diane-richards diane-sloan diane-suresne dido-angel dillan-lauren dina-deville dina-jewel dina-pearl ditty-blue diva divinity-love djiana dolly-darkley dominique dominique-dewitt dominique-saint-claire donna-hart donna-marie dorle-buchner dorothy-lemay dorothy-onan drea drimla dru-berrymore dusty-rose dyanna-lauren ebony-ayes edina-blond edita-ungerova edwige-faillel eileen-wells elaine-southern elena-berkova elena-maria-ricci eleonore-melzer elisabeth-bure elis-black elise elise-di-medici elle-devyne elle-rio elodie-delage elsa-maroussia elza-brown emili-doll emily-evermoore emily-george emily-jewel emmanuelle-pareze envy-mi erica-boyer erica-eaton erica-havens erica-idol erica-lauren erika-bella erika-cool erika-heaven erika-lockett esme-monroe eva-allen eva-angel eva-dionisio eva-gross eva-kleber eva-lux eva-uettori eve-laurence evelyne-lang evie-delatosso fabiana-venturi faith-stevens fallon fanny-garreau fanny-steel faye-runaway flame flick-shagwell flore-soller flower france-lomay france-quenie francoise frankie-leigh gabriella gabriella-mirelba gabriella-vincze gail-force gail-palmer gail-sterling georgette-saunders georgia-peach georgina-spelvin gia-givanna gianna-lynn gili-sky gina-carrera gina-gianetti gina-janssen gina-lee gina-martell gina-valentino ginger-jay ginger-lee ginger-lynn ginny-noack giovanna gisela-schwarz giselle-monet gladys-laroche gloria-leonard gloria-todd golden-jade greta-carlson greta-milos guia-lauri-filzi gwenda-farnel hare-krane harley-raine hayley-jade hazel-young heather-deeley heather-ellis heather-hart heather-lere heather-lyn heather-manfield heather-thomas heather-torrance heather-wayne heather-young helen-madigan helen-thomas helga-sven helga-wild hillary-summers holly-hollywood holly-joy holly-page holly-ryder honey-winter hottie-hollie hyapatia-lee ida-fabry ildiko-smits illana-moor ines-ridere ingrid-choray isabella-dior isabella-soprano isabelle-allay isabelle-brell isabelle-marchall isobel-wren iveta ivette-blanche jackie-right jacqueline-lorians jacy-allen jada-stevens jade-east jade-hsu jade-marcela jade-summers jade-wong jahn-gold jamie-brooks jamie-james jamie-summers jana-irrova jana-mrazkova jane-baker jane-darling jane-iwanoff jane-lindsay jane-lixx janet-jacme janey-robbins jasmine-delatori jayden-simone jaylyn-rose jayna-woods jazella-moore jazmin-luna-gold jean-afrique jeanette-littledove jeanie-marie-sullivan jean-jennings jeanna-fine jeannie-pepper jenna-jameson jenna-jane jenna-presley jenna-wells jennifer-haussmann jennifer-janes jennifer-jordan jennifer-morante jennifer-noxt jennifer-stewart jennifer-welles jennifer-west jenny jenny-feeling jenny-fields jenny-wings jersey-jaxin jesie-st-james jesse-capelli jessica-bangkok jessica-bogart jessica-darlin jessica-fiorentino jessica-gabriel jessica-laine jessica-may jessica-road jessica-wylde jessi-foster jill-ferari jill-kelly joana-redgrave joan-devlon joanna-storm joanna-sweet jody-maxwell joelle-lequement joelle-petinot johnni-black jordana-james jordan-green jordan-nevaeh jordan-star josephine-carrington joslyn-james julia-chanel julia-dal-fuoco juliana-grandi julia-paes julia-parton julia-perrin julia-swen julia-thomas julie-meadows julie-rage julie-simone juliet-anderson juliet-graham juliette-carelton kacey-jordan kagney-linn-karter kaitlyn-ashley kalena-rios kami-andrews kamila-smith kandee-licks kandi-barbour kapri-styles kara-nox karen-summer kari-foxx karine-gambier karin-schubert karli-sweet karmen-kennedy karol-castro kascha kassi-nova kat kate-frost kate-jones kathia-nobili kathleen-gentry kathleen-white kathy-divan kathy-harcourt kathy-heart kathy-kash katie-cummings katja-love kat-langer katrina-isis katrina-kraven katy-borman katy-caro kaycee-dean kayla-kupcakes kay-parker k-c-valentine keama-kim keira-moon keisha keli-richards kelli-tyler kelly-adams kelly-blue kelly-broox kelly-hearn kelly-kay kelly-kline kelly-nichols kelly-royce kelly-skyline kendra-kay kenzi-marie keri-windsor ketthy-divan kianna-dior kiley-heart kim-alexis kimber-blake kimberly-carson kimberly-kane kimberly-kyle kim-de-place kim-holland kimi-gee kimkim-de kim-kitaine kimmie-lee kimmy-nipples kina-kara kira-eggers kira-red kirsty-waay kitty-langdon kitty-lynxxx kitty-marie kitty-shayne kitty-yung kora-cummings kris-lara krista-lane krista-maze kristara-barrington kristarah-knight kristi-klenot kristina-blonde kristina-king kristina-klevits kristina-soderszk kristine-heller kristin-steen krisztina-ventura krystal-de-boor krystal-steal kylee-karr kylee-nash kylie-brooks kylie-channel kylie-haze kylie-wylde kym-wilde kyoto-sun lachelle-marie lacy-rose lady-amanda-wyldefyre lady-stephanie laetitia-bisset lana-burner lana-cox lana-wood lara-amour lara-roxx lara-stevens lataya-roxx latoya laura-clair laura-lazare laura-lion laura-may laura-orsolya laura-paouck laura-zanzibar lauren-black laurence-boutin lauren-montgomery laurien-dominique laurien-wilde laurie-smith lauryl-canyon lauryn-may leah-wilde lea-magic lea-martini leanna-foxxx lee-caroll leigh-livingston leilani lenora-bruce leslie-winston lesllie-bovee letizia-bruni lexi-lane lexi-matthews lezley-zen lia-fire liliane-gray liliane-lemieuvre lili-marlene lily-gilder lily-labeau lily-rodgers lily-valentine linda-shaw linda-vale linda-wong linnea-quigley lisa-bright lisa-de-leeuw lisa-k-loring lisa-lake lisa-melendez lisa-sue-corey lise-pinson little-oral-annie liza-dwyer liza-harper lizzy-borden logan-labrent lois-ayres lola-cait long-jean-silver loni-bunny loni-sanders loona-luxx lorelei-lee lorelei-rand lorena-sanchez lori-alexia lori-blue lorrie-lovett luci-diamond lucie-doll lucie-theodorova lucy-van-dam lydia-baum lynn-franciss lynn-lemay lynn-ray lynn-stevens lynx-canon lysa-thatcher madelina-ray madison-parker magdalena-lynn maggie-randall mai-lin mandi-wine mandy-bright mandy-malone mandy-may mandy-mistery mandy-starr marcia-minor maren margit-ojetz margitta-hofer margo-stevens margot-mahler mariah-cherry marianne-aubert maria-tortuga marie-anne marie-christine-chireix marie-christine-veroda marie-claude-moreau marie-dominique-cabannes marie-france-morel marie-luise-lusewitz marie-sharp marilyn-chambers marilyne-leroy marilyn-gee marilyn-jess marilyn-martyn marilyn-star marina-hedman marion-webb marita-ekberg marita-kemper marlena marlene-willoughby marry-queen martine-grimaud martine-schultz maryanne-fisher mary-hubay mary-ramunno mary-stuart mascha-mouton maud-kennedy mauvais-denoir maxine-tyler maya-black maya-france megan-leigh megan-martinez megan-reece mei-ling melanie-hotlips melanie-scott melba-cruz melinda-russell melissa-bonsardo melissa-del-prado melissa-golden melissa-martinez melissa-melendez melissa-monet mercedes-dragon mercedes-lynn merle-michaels mesha-lynn mia-beck mia-lina mia-smiles michele-raven michelle-aston michelle-ferrari michelle-greco michelle-maren michelle-maylene michelle-monroe micki-lynn mika-barthel mika-tan mikki-taylor mimi-morgan mindy-rae ming-toy miranda-stevens miss-bunny miss-meadow miss-pomodoro missy missy-graham missy-stone missy-vega misti-jane mistress-candice misty-anderson misty-dawn misty-rain misty-regan mona-lisa mona-page moni monica-baal monica-swinn monika-peta monika-sandmayr monika-unco monique-bruno monique-cardin monique-charell monique-demoan monique-gabrielle monique-la-belle morgan-fairlane morrigan-hel moxxie-maddron mulani-rivera mysti-may nadege-arnaud nadia-styles nadine-bronx nadine-proutnal nadine-roussial nadi-phuket nanci-suiter nancy-hoffman nancy-vee natacha-delyro natalia-wood natalli-diangelo natascha-throat natasha-skyler naudia-nyce nessa-devil nessy-grant nesty nicki-hunter nicky-reed nicole-berg nicole-bernard nicole-black nicole-grey nicole-london nicole-parks nicole-scott nicole-taylor nicolette-fauludi nicole-west nika-blond nika-mamic niki-cole nikita-love nikita-rush nikki-charm nikki-grand nikki-king nikki-knight nikki-randall nikki-rhodes nikki-santana nikki-steele nikki-wilde niko nina-cherry nina-deponca nina-hartley nina-preta oana-efria obaya-roberts olesja-derevko olga-cabaeva olga-conti olga-pechova olga-petrova olivia-alize olivia-del-rio olivia-flores olivia-la-roche olivia-outre ophelia-tozzi orchidea-keresztes orsolya-blonde paige-turner paisley-hunter pamela-bocchi pamela-jennings pamela-mann pamela-stanford pamela-stealt pandora paola-albini pascale-vital pat-manning pat-rhea patricia-dale patricia-diamond patricia-kennedy patricia-rhomberg patrizia-predan patti-cakes patti-petite paula-brasile paula-harlow paula-morton paula-price paula-winters pauline-teutscher penelope-pumpkins penelope-valentin petra-hermanova petra-lamas peyton-lafferty phaedra-grant pia-snow piper-fawn pipi-anderson porsche-lynn porsha-carrera precious-silver priscillia-lenn purple-passion queeny-love rachel-ashley rachel-love rachel-luv rachel-roxxx rachel-ryan rachel-ryder racquel-darrian rane-revere raven reagan-maddux rebecca-bardoux regan-anthony regine-bardot regula-mertens reina-leone reka-gabor renae-cruz renee-foxx renee-lovins renee-morgan renee-perez renee-summers renee-tiffany rhonda-jo-petty rikki-blake riley-ray rio-mariah rita-ricardo roberta-gemma roberta-pedon robin-byrd robin-cannes robin-everett robin-sane rochell-starr rosa-lee-kimball rosemarie roxanne-blaze roxanne-hall roxanne-rollan ruby-richards sabina-k sabre sabrina-chimaera sabrina-dawn sabrina-jade sabrina-johnson sabrina-love-cox sabrina-mastrolorenzi sabrina-rose sabrina-scott sabrina-summers sacha-davril sahara sahara-sands sai-tai-tiger samantha-fox samantha-ryan samantha-sterlyng samantha-strong samueline-de-la-rosa sandra-cardinale sandra-de-marco sandra-kalermen sandra-russo sandy-lee sandy-pinney sandy-reed sandy-samuel sandy-style sandy-summers sara-brandy-canyon sara-faye sarah-bernard sarah-cabrera sarah-hevyn sarah-mills sarah-shine sara-sloane sasha sasha-hollander sasha-ligaya sasha-rose satine-phoenix satin-summer savannah-stern savanna-jane scarlet-scarleau scarlet-windsor seka selena serena serena-south severine-amoux shana-evans shanna-mccullough shannon-kelly shannon-rush shantell-day sharon-da-vale sharon-kane sharon-mitchell shaun-michelle shawna-sexton shawnee-cates shay-hendrix shayne-ryder sheena-horne sheer-delight shelby-star shelby-stevens shelly-berlin shelly-lyons sheri-st-clair sheyla-cats shonna-lynn shyla-foxxx shy-love sierra-sinn sierra-skye sigrun-theil silver-starr silvia-bella silvia-saint silvie-de-lux silvy-taylor simone-west sindee-coxx sindy-lange sindy-shy siobhan-hunter skylar-knight skylar-price skyler-dupree smokie-flame smoking-mary-jane solange-shannon sonya-summers sophia-santi sophie-call sophie-duflot sophie-evans sophie-guers stacey-donovan stacy-lords stacy-moran stacy-nichols stacy-silver stacy-thorn starla-fox starr-wood stefania-bruni stella-virgin stephanie-duvalle stephanie-rage stephanie-renee stevie-taylor summer-knight summer-rose sunny-day sunset-thomas sunshine-seiber susan-hart susanne-brend susan-nero susi-hotkiss suzanne-mcbain suzan-nielsen suzie-bartlett suzie-carina suzi-sparks sweet-nice sweety-pie sybille-rossani sylvia-benedict sylvia-bourdon sylvia-brand sylvia-engelmann syreeta-taylor syren-de-mer syvette szabina-black szilvia-lauren tai-ellis taija-rae taisa-banx talia-james tamara-lee tamara-longley tamara-n-joy tamara-west tami-white tammy tammy-lee tammy-reynolds tania-lorenzo tantala-ray tanya-danielle tanya-fox tanya-foxx tanya-lawson tanya-valis tara-aire tasha-voux tatjana-belousova tatjana-skomorokhova tawnee-lee tawny-pearl tayla-rox taylor-wane teddi-austin teddi-barrett tera-bond tera-heart tera-joy teresa-may teresa-orlowski teri-diver teri-weigel terri-dolan terri-hall tess-ferre tess-newheart thais-vieira tia-cherry tianna tiara tiffany-blake tiffany-clark tiffany-duponte tiffany-rayne tiffany-rousso tiffany-storm tiffany-towers tiffany-tyler tiger-lily tigr timea-vagvoelgyi tina-blair tina-burner tina-evil tina-gabriel tina-loren tina-marie tina-russell tish-ambrose tommi-rose tonisha-mills topsy-curvey tori-secrets tori-sinclair tori-welles tracey-adams traci-lords traci-topps traci-winn tracy-duzit tracy-love tracy-williams tricia-devereaux tricia-yen trinity-loren trisha-rey trista-post trixie-tyler ultramax ursula-gaussmann ursula-moore uschi-karnat valentina valerie-leveau valery-hilton vanessa-chase vanessa-del-rio vanessa-michaels vanessa-ozdanic vanilla-deville velvet-summers veri-knotty veronica-dol veronica-hart veronica-hill veronica-rayne veronica-sage veronika-vanoza via-paxton vicky-lindsay vicky-vicci victoria-evans victoria-gold victoria-knight victoria-luna victoria-paris victoria-slick victoria-zdrok viper virginie-caprice vivian-valentine vivien-martines wendi-white wendy-divine whitney-banks whitney-fears whitney-wonders wonder-tracey wow-nikki xanthia-berstein yasmine-fitzgerald yelena-shieffer yvonne-green zara-whites zsanett-egerhazi zuzie-boobies

Christian apologetics aims to present a rational basis for Christianity. The word "apologetic" comes from the Greek word "apologeomai", meaning "in defense of". Christian apologetics has taken many forms over the centuries, starting with Paul the Apostle. The philosopher Thomas Aquinas presented five arguments for God's existence in the Summa Theologica, while his Summa contra Gentiles was a major apologetic work.[346][347] Another famous apologist, G. K. Chesterton, wrote in the early twentieth century about the benefits of religion and, specifically, Christianity. Famous for his use of paradox, Chesterton explained that while Christianity had the most mysteries, it was the most practical religion.[348][349] He pointed to the advance of Christian civilizations as proof of its practicality.[350] The physicist and priest John Polkinghorne, in his Questions of Truth discusses the subject of religion and science, a topic that other Christian apologists such as Ravi Zacharias, John Lennox and William Lane Craig have engaged, with the latter two men opining that the inflationary Big Bang model is evidence for the existence of God.[351] Main article: Criticism of Jehovah's Witnesses Jehovah's Witnesses have attracted criticism over issues surrounding their Bible translation, doctrines, their handling of sexual abuse cases, and alleged coercion of members. Many of the claims are denied by Jehovah's Witnesses and some have also been disputed by religious scholars. Free speech and thought[edit] Doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses are established by the Governing Body.[312][313] The religion does not tolerate dissent over doctrines and practices;[142][314][315][316] members who openly disagree with the religion's teachings are expelled and shunned.[233] Witness publications strongly discourage followers from questioning doctrine and counsel received from the Governing Body, reasoning that it is to be trusted as part of "God's organization".[316][317][318][319] It also warns members to "avoid independent thinking", claiming such thinking "was introduced by Satan the Devil"[320][321] and would "cause division".[322] Those who openly disagree with official teachings are condemned as "apostates" who are "mentally diseased".[323][324][325] Former members Heather and Gary Botting compare the cultural paradigms of the religion to George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-four,[326] and Alan Rogerson describes the religion's leadership as totalitarian.[327] Other critics charge that by disparaging individual decision-making, the religion's leaders cultivate a system of unquestioning obedience[148][328] in which Witnesses abrogate all responsibility and rights over their personal lives.[329][330] Critics also accuse the religion's leaders of exercising "intellectual dominance" over Witnesses,[331] controlling information[233][332][333] and creating "mental isolation", which former Governing Body member Raymond Franz argued were all elements of mind control.[334] Jehovah's Witness publications state that consensus of faith aids unity, and deny that unity restricts individuality or imagination.[335] Historian James Irvin Lichti has rejected the description of the religion as "totalitarian".[336] Sociologist Rodney Stark states that Jehovah's Witness leaders are "not always very democratic" and that members "are expected to conform to rather strict standards," but adds that "enforcement tends to be very informal, sustained by the close bonds of friendship within the group", and that Jehovah's Witnesses see themselves as "part of the power structure rather than subject to it."[88] Sociologist Andrew Holden states that most members who join millenarian movements such as Jehovah's Witnesses have made an informed choice.[337] However, he also states that defectors "are seldom allowed a dignified exit",[323] and describes the administration as autocratic.[338] New World Translation[edit] Main article: New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures Some Bible scholars including Bruce M. Metzger, former Professor and Bible editor at Princeton Theological Seminary, have said that the translation of certain texts in its New World Translation of the Bible is biased in favor of Witness practices and doctrines.[339][340][341][342][343] The Bible editor Harold H. Rowley criticized the pre-release edition of the first volume (Genesis to Ruth) published in 1953 as "a shining example of how the Bible should not be translated."[344] On the other hand, in his study on nine of "the Bibles most widely in use in the English-speaking world", Bible scholar Jason BeDuhn, Professor of Religious Studies at the Northern Arizona University, wrote: “The NW [New World Translation] emerges as the most accurate of the translations compared.” Although the general public and many Bible scholars assume that the differences in the New World Translation are the result of religious bias on the part of its translators, BeDuhn stated: “Most of the differences are due to the greater accuracy of the NW as a literal, conservative translation of the original expressions of the New Testament writers.” He added however that the insertion of the name Jehovah in the New Testament "violate[s] accuracy in favor of denominationally preferred expressions for God".[345] Failed predictions[edit] Main article: Watch Tower Society unfulfilled predictions Watch Tower Society publications have claimed that God has used Jehovah's Witnesses (and formerly, the International Bible Students) to declare his will[346][347] and has provided advance knowledge about Armageddon and the establishment of God's kingdom.[348][349][350] Some publications also claimed that God has used Jehovah's Witnesses and the International Bible Students as a modern-day prophet.[note 5] Jehovah's Witnesses' publications have made various predictions about world events they believe were prophesied in the Bible.[351][352] Failed predictions have led to the alteration or abandonment of some doctrines.[353][354] Some failed predictions had been presented as "beyond doubt" or "approved by God".[355] The Watch Tower Society rejects accusations that it is a false prophet,[356] stating that its teachings are not inspired or infallible,[357][358][359] and that it has not claimed its predictions were "the words of Jehovah."[356] George D. Chryssides has suggested that with the exception of statements about 1914, 1925 and 1975, the changing views and dates of the Jehovah's Witnesses are largely attributable to changed understandings of biblical chronology than to failed predictions.[80] Chryssides further states, "it is therefore simplistic and naïve to view the Witnesses as a group that continues to set a single end-date that fails and then devise a new one, as many counter-cultists do."[360] However, sociologist Andrew Holden states that since the foundation of the movement around 140 years ago, "Witnesses have maintained that we are living on the precipice of the end of time."[361] Handling of sexual abuse cases[edit] Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses' handling of child sex abuse Jehovah's Witnesses have been accused of having policies and culture that help to conceal cases of sexual abuse within the organization.[362] The religion has been criticized for its "two witness rule" for church discipline, based on its application of scriptures at Deuteronomy 19:15 and Matthew 18:15-17, which requires sexual abuse to be substantiated by secondary evidence if the accused person denies any wrongdoing.[363][364][365] In cases where corroboration is lacking, the Watch Tower Society's instruction is that "the elders will leave the matter in Jehovah's hands".[366] A former member of the church’s headquarters staff, Barbara Anderson, says the policy effectively requires that there be another witness to an act of molestation, "which is an impossibility". Anderson says the policies "protect pedophiles rather than protect the children."[367] Jehovah's Witnesses maintain that they have a strong policy to protect children, adding that the best way to protect children is by educating parents; they also state that they do not sponsor activities that separate children from parents.[363][368][369] The religion's reluctance to report abuse allegations to authorities has also been criticized.[370] The Watch Tower Society's policy is that elders inform authorities when required by law to do so, but otherwise leave that action up to the victim and his or her family.[363][371][372] The Australian Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse found that of 1006 alleged perpetrators of child sexual abuse identified by the Jehovah's Witnesses within their organization since 1950, "not one was reported by the church to secular authorities."[373] William Bowen, a former Jehovah's Witness elder who established the Silentlambs organization to assist sex abuse victims within the religion, has claimed Witness leaders discourage followers from reporting incidents of sexual misconduct to authorities, and other critics claim the organization is reluctant to alert authorities in order to protect its "crime-free" reputation.[362][374] In court cases in the United Kingdom and the United States the Watch Tower Society has been found to have been negligent in its failure to protect children from known sex offenders within the congregation[375][376] and the Society has settled other child abuse lawsuits out of court The Edinburgh Missionary Conference is considered the symbolic starting point of the contemporary ecumenical movement.[189] The ecumenical movement has had an influence on mainline churches, beginning at least in 1910 with the Edinburgh Missionary Conference. Its origins lay in the recognition of the need for cooperation on the mission field in Africa, Asia and Oceania. Since 1948, the World Council of Churches has been influential, but ineffective in creating a united church. There are also ecumenical bodies at regional, national and local levels across the globe; but schisms still far outnumber unifications. One, but not the only expression of the ecumenical movement, has been the move to form united churches, such as the Church of South India, the Church of North India, the US-based United Church of Christ, the United Church of Canada, the Uniting Church in Australia and the United Church of Christ in the Philippines which have rapidly declining memberships. There has been a strong engagement of Orthodox churches in the ecumenical movement, though the reaction of individual Orthodox theologians has ranged from tentative approval of the aim of Christian unity to outright condemnation of the perceived effect of watering down Orthodox doctrine.[190] A Protestant baptism is held to be valid by the Catholic Church if given with the trinitarian formula and with the intent to baptize. However, as the ordination of Protestant ministers is not recognized due to the lack of apostolic succession and the disunity from Catholic Church, all other sacraments (except marriage) performed by Protestant denominations and ministers are not recognized as valid. Therefore, Protestants desiring full communion with the Catholic Church are not re-baptized (although they are confirmed) and Protestant ministers who become Catholics may be ordained to the priesthood after a period of study. In 1999, the representatives of Lutheran World Federation and Catholic Church signed the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification, apparently resolving the conflict over the nature of justification which was at the root of the Protestant Reformation, although Confessional Lutherans reject this statement.[191] This is understandable, since there is no compelling authority within them. On 18 July 2006, delegates to the World Methodist Conference voted unanimously to adopt the Joint Declaration.[192][193] Spread and demographics[edit] Main article: Protestants by country See also: Christianity by country Protestant majority countries. Countries by percentage of Protestants. There are more than 950 million Protestants worldwide,[3][19][20][21][194][195][196][197][aa] among approximately 2.4 billion Christians.[19][199][200][201][ab] These include 300 million in Sub-Saharan Africa, 260 million in the Americas, 140 million in Asia-Pacific region, 100 million in Europe and 2 million in Middle East-North Africa.[3] Protestants account for nearly forty percent of Christians worldwide and more than one tenth of the total human population.[3] Various estimates put the percentage of Protestants in relation to the total number of world's Christians at 33%,[194] 36%,[202] 36.7%,[3] and 40%,[21] while in relation to the world's population at 11.6%[3] and 13%.[197] In European countries which were most profoundly influenced by the Reformation, Protestantism still remains the most practiced religion.[194] These include the Nordic countries and the United Kingdom.[194][203] In other historical Protestant strongholds such as Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Latvia, Estonia and Hungary, it remains one of the most popular religions.[204] Although Czech Republic was the site of one of the most significant pre-reformation movements,[205] there are only few Protestant adherents;[206][207] mainly due to historical reasons like persecution of Protestants by the Catholic Habsburgs,[208] restrictions during the Communist rule, and also the ongoing secularization.[205] Over the last several decades, religious practice has been declining as secularization has increased.[194][209] According to a 2012 study about Religiosity in the European Union in 2012 by Eurobarometer, Protestants made up 12% of the EU population.[210] According to Pew Research Center, Protestants constituted nearly one fifth (or 17.8%) of the continent's Christian population in 2010.[3] Clarke and Beyer estimate that Protestants constituted 15% of all Europeans in 2009, while Noll claims that less than 12% of them lived in Europe in 2010.[194][196] Changes in worldwide Protestantism over the last century have been significant.[21][196][211] Since 1900, Protestantism has spread rapidly in Africa, Asia, Oceania and Latin America.[28][197][211] That caused Protestantism to be called a primarily non-Western religion.[196][211] Much of the growth has occurred after World War II, when decolonization of Africa and abolition of various restrictions against Protestants in Latin American countries occurred.[197] According to one source, Protestants constituted respectively 2.5%, 2%, 0.5% of Latin Americans, Africans and Asians.[197] In 2000, percentage of Protestants on mentioned continents was 17%, more than 27% and 5.5%, respectively.[197] According to Mark A. Noll, 79% of Anglicans lived in the United Kingdom in 1910, while most of the remainder was found in the United States and across the British Commonwealth.[196] By 2010, 59% of Anglicans were found in Africa.[196] In 2010, more Protestants lived in India than in the UK or Germany, while Protestants in Brazil accounted for as many people as Protestants in the UK and Germany combined.[196] Almost as many lived in each of Nigeria and China as in all of Europe.[196] China is home to world's largest Protestant minority.[3][ac] Protestantism is growing in Africa,[28][212][213] Asia,[28][213][214] Latin America,[213][215] and Oceania,[28][211] while declining in Anglo America[211][216] and Europe,[194][217] with some exceptions such as France,[218] where it was eradicated after the abolition of the Edict of Nantes by the Edict of Fontainebleau and the following persecution of Huguenots, but now is claimed to be stable in number or even growing slightly.[218] In 2010, the largest Protestant denominational families were historically Pentecostal denominations (10.8%), Anglican (10.6%), Lutheran (9.7%), Baptist (9%), United and uniting churches (unions of different denominations) (7.2%), Presbyterian or Reformed (7%), Methodist (3.4%), Adventist (2.7%), Congregationalist (0.5%), Brethren (0.5%), The Salvation Army (0.3%) and Moravian (0.1%). Other denominations accounted for 38.2% of Protestants.[3] The United States is home to approximately 20% of Protestants.[3] According to a 2012 study, Protestant share of U.S. population dropped to 48%, thus ending its status as religion of the majority for the first time.[219][220][221] The decline is attributed mainly to the dropping membership of the Mainline Protestant churches,[219][222] while Evangelical Protestant and Black churches are stable or continue to grow.[219] By 2050, Protestantism is projected to rise to slightly more than half of the world's total Christian population.[223][ad] According to other experts such as Hans J. Hillerbrand, Protestants will be as numerous as Catholics 1.3 1970s 1.4 21st Century 2 References 3 External links History[edit] Before the Second World War[edit] By the 1930s, the term "conservative evangelical" was being used in distinction to "liberal evangelical". The points of distinction largely were that while liberal evangelicals "maintain some of the other typical evangelical emphases, do not maintain, and often repudiate, the total reliability of the Bible and usually do not preach substitutionary atonement, even if they stress the cross in a doctrinally undefined way."[6] Movements such as the Anglican Evangelical Group Movement and the Student Christian Movement could be described as Liberal Evangelical, the former organisation glad of the title "Liberal Evangelical". Organisations such as the Bible Churchman's Missionary Society and the Inter-Varsity Fellowship of Evangelicals Unions (now UCCF) were distinctively Conservative Evangelical in the Anglican and university spheres respectively.[7] The Conservative Evangelical movement was small and as such largely defensive, in part because "In academic circles it was almost universally assumed that a CE view of the Bible was dead."[8] The Keswick Convention, which would later have a very significant role in the shaping of Conservative Evangelicalism in the UK, was a small outpost of Evangelicalism still thoroughly committed to the sufficiency and authority of the Bible.[9] 1960s[edit] A key event in the development of British conservative evangelicalism was the 1966 National Assembly of Evangelicals, a convention organised by the Evangelical Alliance. Martyn Lloyd-Jones made an unexpected call for evangelicals to unite together as evangelicals and no longer within their "mixed" denominations. This view was motivated by a belief that true Christian fellowship requires evangelical views on central topics such as the atonement and the inspiration of Scripture. The meeting was chaired by Anglican evangelical John Stott. Lloyd Jones and Stott were the two leading figures within the conservative evangelical movement at that time, Lloyd Jones being a key figure to many in the Free Churches and Stott likewise amongst evangelical Anglicans. The two leaders clashed spectacularly as Stott, though not down as a speaker that night, used his role to urge Anglican clergy not to make any rash decisions, saying that Lloyd-Jones' opinion went against history and the Bible. The following year saw the first National Evangelical Anglican Congress, which was held at Keele University. At this conference, largely due to Stott's influence, evangelical Anglicans committed themselves to full participation in the Church of England, rejecting the separationist approach proposed by Lloyd-Jones.[10] These two conferences effectively fixed the direction of a large part of the British evangelical community. Although there is an ongoing debate as to the exact nature of Lloyd-Jones's views, they undoubtedly caused the two groupings to adopt diametrically opposed positions. These positions, and the resulting split, continue largely unchanged to this day.[11] 1970s[edit] From the war up until the 1960s, Conservative Evangelicals had been less of a distinct group within Evangelicalism than they had before the war. The contributions, during the war, of CS Lewis to the Evangelical cause helped to blend the lines between Conservative Evangelicals and others committed to Evangelical distinctives from outside the movement. The stand taken by Stott and Lloyd-Jones against the Liberalization of Christianity in the 60s, meant that the biggest disagreements between Evangelicals were over how to maintain Evangelical distinctives in the light of the increasing shift of the major denominations toward Liberalism. However, there were distinctions and disagreements within Evangelicalism that went beyond this. With the dawn of the 70s, Evangelicals "were less united than they had been on church policies and on some theological issues."[8] One of the most significant of these was the rise of the relatively young Charismatic movement, which saw the importation of some of what had previously been Pentecostal distinctives into the other mainline Protestant denominations (but at this stage, largely within the Evangelical constituency). The impact of this movement was so large that "By the 1970s, it was said, the majority of younger evangelicals in the Church of England were charismatic in outlook."[12] The Conservative Evangelical movement can now be said to have a clearer definition from Charismaticism. But the two movements could never be clearly separated as "Many congregations included a charismatic element... This was partly because the more extreme groups tended to leave and form their own congregations, and partly because a charismatic element was more often accepted as a possible constituent of a broader fellowship, even by those who did not share its emphases."[13] 21st Century[edit] In December 2014, it was announced that the Church of England would appoint a new Bishop of Maidstone provide alternative episcopal oversight for conservative evangelical members of the Church who take an alternative view on "headship".[14] In September 2015, Rod Thomas was consecrated as the Bishop of Maidstone and became the first flying bishop for conservative evangelicals.[15] In the United States, Supreme Court decisions that outlawed organized prayer in school and restricted church-related schools (for example, preventing them from engaging in racial discrimination while also receiving a tax exemption) also played a role in mobilizing the Religious Right.[132] In addition, questions of sexual morality and homosexuality have been energizing factors—and above all, the notion that elites are pushing America into secularism. Christian nation[edit] Opponents criticise the Evangelicals, whom they say actually want a Christian America—America being a nation in which Christianity is given a privileged position.[133] Survey data shows that "between 64 and 75 percent do not favor a 'Christian Nation' amendment", though between 60 and 75 percent also believe that Christianity and Political Liberalism are incompatible.[134] Evangelical leaders, in turn, counter that they merely seek freedom from the imposition by national elites of an equally subjective secular worldview, and feel that it is their opponents who are violating their rights.[135] Media references[edit] Many films offer differing views on evangelical, End Times and Rapture culture. One that offers a revealing view of the mindset of the Calvinist and premillennial dispensationalist element in evangelicalism is "Good People Go to Hell, Saved People Go to Heaven."[136] Other issues[edit] Unbalanced scales.svg The neutrality of this section is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until conditions to do so are met. (May 2013) According to recent reports in the New York Times, some Evangelicals have sought to expand their movement's social agenda to include poverty, combating AIDS in the Third World, and protecting the environment.[137] This is highly contentious within the Evangelical community, since more conservative Evangelicals believe that this trend is compromising important issues and prioritizing popularity and consensus too highly. Personifying this division were the Evangelical leaders James Dobson and Rick Warren, the former who warned of the dangers of a Barack Obama victory in 2008 from his point of view,[138] in contrast with the latter who declined to endorse either major candidate on the grounds that he wanted the church to be less politically divisive and that he agreed substantially with both men.[139] See also[edit] 10/40 Window Biblical literalism Broad church Child evangelism movement Christian eschatological views Conservative Evangelicalism in Britain Evangelical Council of Venezuela Evangelical Fellowship of Canada Fundamentalism List of evangelical Christians List of evangelical seminaries and theological colleges National Association of Evangelicals Pure Land Buddhism, in some important respects a parallel Buddhist tradition World Evangelical Alliance 2.3 Christian History 3 References 4 External links History[edit] The first issue of Christianity Today was mailed October 15, 1956, and the opening editorial, Why 'Christianity Today'?,[7] stated "Christianity Today has its origin in a deep-felt desire to express historical Christianity to the present generation. Neglected, slighted, misrepresented—evangelical Christianity needs a clear voice, to speak with conviction and love, and to state its true position and its relevance to the world crisis. A generation has grown up unaware of the basic truths of the Christian faith taught in the Scriptures and expressed in the creeds of the historic evangelical churches." Its first editor was Carl F. H. Henry. Notable contributors in its first two decades included contributions from F. F. Bruce, Edward John Carnell, Frank Gaebelein, Walter Martin, John Warwick Montgomery, and Harold Lindsell. Lindsell succeeded Henry as editor and during his editorial administration much attention centered on debates about biblical inerrancy. Later editorial leadership came from Kenneth Kantzer, Terry Muck, and David Neff. The current editor is Mark Galli, and the publication now includes print, online, and various ancillary products. Katelyn Beaty is managing editor of the print edition, and Ted Olsen is managing editor of news and online journalism. Contents of print and online include feature stories, news ranging from cultural issues from a Christian viewpoint to the global church, opinion, reviews, and investigative reporting. In Billy Graham’s 1997 autobiography, Just As I Am, he writes[8] of his vision, idea, – Rep for Gunma rd November December LDP Jiminto Nakasone I LDP — — December July Nakasone II Reshuffle LDP–NLC July November Nakasone III LDP Noboru Takeshita ?? ? Takeshita Noboru – Rep for Shimane At large November June LDP Jiminto Takeshita Reshuffle LDP — — Prime Ministers during the Heisei period –present edit Under Emperor Akihito ? Prime Minister Term of office Political Party Government Elected Ref Portrait Name Took Office Left Office Days Gen Coun Sosuke Uno ?? ?? Uno Sosuke – Rep for Shiga At large June August LDP Jiminto Uno LDP — Soon after he was elected Prime Minister allegations arose that he had an extramarital relationship with a geisha which damaged his reputation and his party s performance in the House of Councillors election for which he resigned He died in Served as Minister of Defense Chief of the Science and Technology Agency – Chief of the Civil Administration Agency – Minister of Economy Trade and Industry and Minister for Foreign Affairs – Member of the Diet from to Toshiki Kaifu ?? ?? Kaifu Toshiki – Rep for Aichi rd August February LDP Jiminto Kaifu I LDP — — February November Kaifu II Reshuffle LDP — Defeated in he was the longest serving member of the lower house of the Diet and he was also the first former prime minister to be defeated at a re election since Served as Deputy Chief Cabinet Secretary – Minister of Education – – Member of the Diet from to Kiichi Miyazawa ?? ?? Miyazawa Kiichi – Rep for Hiroshima rd November August LDP Jiminto Kiichi Reshuffle LDP — Originally a bureaucrat in the Treasury Ministry he accompanied Prime Minister Shigeru Yoshida at the Treaty of San Francisco A firm critic of the revision of the constitution he advocated peace throughout his political career After his party s stunning defeat in the general election he was forced to resign the Prime Ministership but became Minister of Finance in the cabinet of Keizo Obuchi and Yoshiro Mori from to He died in Served as Minister of Economy Trade and Industry – – – – Chief Cabinet Secretary – Minister of Finance – Minister of Posts and Telecommunications and Minister of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries Member of the House of Councillors – Symbols Flag Coat of Arms Notable people Gallery See also References External links History edit The city of Yauco was named after the river Yauco which was originally known as coayuco by the Taínos meaning "yucca plantation" The area of Yauco was considered as the capital of "Boriken" Taíno name of Puerto Rico and was governed by Agüeybana the most powerful Taíno "cacique" chief in the island All the other Caciques were subject to and had to obey Agüeybaná even though they governed their own tribes Upon Agüeybaná s death in his nephew Güeybaná also known as Agüeybaná II became the most powerful Cacique in the island Agüeybaná II had his doubts about the "godly" status of the Spaniards He came up with a plan to test these doubts he and Urayoán cacique of Añasco sent some of their tribe members to lure a Spaniard by the name of Diego Salcedo into a river and drown him They watched over Salcedo s body to make sure that he would not resuscitate Salcedo s death was enough to convince him and the rest of the Taíno people that the Spaniards were not gods This in turn led to the failed Taíno rebellion of In the Spanish settlers of the region built a small chapel and named it "Nuestra Señora del Santísimo Rosario" Our Lady of the Rosary The settlers sent Fernando Pacheco as their representative to the Spanish Government to request the establishment of a municipality since one of the requisites to such a request the establishment of a place of worship had been met On February the King of Spain granted the settlers their request and the town of Yauco was established Fernando Pacheco was named First Lieutenant of War of the new town th century Corsican immigration edit Early Yauco Coffee Plantation Pre Main article Corsican immigration to Puerto Rico The island of Puerto Rico is very similar in geography to the island of Corsica and therefore appealed to the many Corsicans who wanted to start a "new" life Under the Spanish Royal Decree of Graces the Corsicans and other immigrants were granted land and initially given a "Letter of Domicile" after swearing loyalty to the Spanish Crown and allegiance to the Catholic Church After five years they could request a "Letter of Naturalization" that would make them Spanish subjects Hundreds of Corsicans and their families immigrated to Puerto Rico from as early as and their numbers peaked in the s The first Spanish settlers settled and owned the land in the coastal areas the Corsicans tended to settle the mountainous southwestern region of the island primary in the towns of Adjuntas Lares Utuado Ponce Coamo Yauco Guayanilla and Guánica However it was Yauco whose rich agricultural area attracted the majority of the Corsican settlers The three main crops in Yauco were coffee sugar cane and tobacco The new settlers dedicated themselves to the cultivation of these crops and within a short period of time some were even able to own and operate their own grocery stores However it was with the cultivation of the coffee bean that they would make their fortunes Cultivation of coffee in Yauco originally began in the Rancheras and Diego Hernández sectors and later extended to the Aguas Blancas Frailes and Rubias sectors The Mariani family created a machine out of a cotton gin in the s which was used in the dehusking of coffee This represented a significant improvement in Puerto Rico s coffee appearance and an opportunity to stand out in the international coffee market By the s the Corsican settlers were the leaders of the coffee industry in Puerto Rico and seven out of ten coffee plantations were owned by Corsicans Intentona de Yauco edit Flag flown by Fidel Vélez and his men during the "Intentona de Yauco" revoltMain article Intentona de Yauco The second and last major revolt against Spanish colonial rule in Puerto Rico by Puerto Rico s pro independence movement known as the Intentona de Yauco a k a the "Attempted Coup of Yauco" was staged in Yauco The revolt which occurred on of March was organized by Antonio Mattei Lluberas Mateo Mercado and Fidel Vélez and was backed up by leaders of "El Grito de Lares" the first major independence attempt who were in exile in New York City as members of the Puerto Rican Revolutionary Committee

and history with Christianity Today. About the Ministry[edit] The magazine's mission statement is "creating Christian content that changes the people who change the world." Its presence on the Internet began in October 1994 when it became one of the top 10 content providers on all of AOL. Then, in 1996, their website was launched. It was originally named ChristianityOnline.com before becoming ChristianityToday.com. Today ChristianityToday.com serves as the web home for Christianity Today magazine. At the ministry's web home, ChristianityToday.org, all other brands for Christian thought leaders and church leaders are featured, including publications like the intellectual Christian review, Books & Culture, and the publication for pastors and church leaders, Leadership Journal. Additional web resources include Today's Christian Woman and Preaching Today. All Christianity Today brands together reach more than 2.5 million people every month when print and digital views are combined, plus more than 5 million pageviews per month on the Internet.[9] The ministry offers access, both premium and free, to over 100,000 articles and other content on their various websites. Christianity Today has faced scrutiny over a number of issues in the recent years. Some Christians claim Christianity Today has "turned to promoting mysticism, contemplative prayer and other New Age, anti-Christian practices."[10] One of the magazine's senior editors, Mark Galli, was accused of "corrupting the faith," after writing an article titled "Divine Drama Queen," which presented his editorial opinion regarding the Biblical God.[11] Ted Olsen, another of the publication's editors, co-wrote an article with Ken Smith, who was found to have previously been involved with a company using software that had been “distributed in conjunction with child pornography."[12] International editions[edit] A Korean language edition, Christianity Today Korea was launched in June 2008.[13] A Portuguese language edition, Christianity Today Brazil was launched in October/November 2007.[14] Two international editions of Leadership Journal were launched in 2012: an African edition in September (English), and a Portuguese edition in October. Books & Culture[edit] Books & Culture is published six times a year and is a book review and intellectual journal modeled after the New York Review of Books and New York Times Book Review. According to its advertising page, the magazine's circulation is 11,000 and its readership is 20,000.[15] It is edited by John Wilson, and notable recent contributors include Mark Noll, Lauren Winner, Alan Jacobs, Jean Bethke Elshtain, and Miroslav Volf. Christian History[edit] Christian History was a journal of the history of Christianity, first issued in January 1982 by the Christian History Institute. Each issue had multiple articles covering a single theme. Initially published annually, it became a quarterly publication. Christianity Today took over ownership of the magazine beginning with issue number 22 in 1989; it was later discontinued after the publishing of issue 99 in 2008. In 2011 the Christian History Institute resumed quarterly publication of the magazine 1 Overview 2 Influence on C. S. Lewis 3 Notes 4 External links The Christian Century is a Christian magazine based in Chicago, Illinois. Considered the flagship magazine of U.S. mainline Protestantism,[1] the biweekly reports on religious news; comments on theological, moral, and cultural issues; and reviews books, movies, and music. The Century hosts four blogs, written and edited by Drew Hart, Edward J. Blum, Kate Bowler, Carol Howard Merritt, and Steve Thorngate, as well as hosting a network of more than 100 outside bloggers, CCblogs. The Christian Century?'s current editor and publisher is John M. Buchanan, while David Heim is its executive editor. Rodney Clapp, Philip Jenkins, and Carol Howard Merritt are columnists; other regular contributors include Carol Zaleski, Walter Brueggemann, Barbara Brown Taylor, and Will Willimon. The magazine takes a "liberal" editorial stance.[2] The magazine describes its mission as follows: For decades, the Christian Century has informed and shaped progressive, mainline Christianity. Committed to "thinking critically and living faithfully," the magazine explores through argument and reflection what it means to believe and live out the Christian faith in our time. As a voice of "generous orthodoxy," the Century is both loyal to the church and open to the world. The Christian Century was founded in 1884 as The Christian Oracle in Des Moines, Iowa as a Disciples of Christ denominational magazine. In 1900, its editor proposed to rename it Christian Century in response to the great optimism of many Christians at the turn of the 20th century that "genuine Christian faith could live in mutual harmony with the modern developments in science, technology, immigration, communication and culture that were already under way." Around this same time, the Century's offices moved to Chicago. The magazine did not receive widespread support in its denomination and was sold in a mortgage foreclosure in 1908. It was purchased by Charles Clayton Morrison, who soon labeled the magazine nondenominational. Morrison became a highly influential spokesman for liberal Christianity, advocating higher criticism of the Bible, as well as the Social Gospel, which included concerns about child labor, women's suffrage, racism, war and pacifism, alcoholism and prohibition, environmentalism and many other political and social issues. The magazine was a common target for criticism by fundamentalists during the Fundamentalist - Modernist debate of the early 20th century. During the Second World War, the magazine helped provide a venue for promotion of ideas by Christian activists who opposed the Japanese-American internment. Critiques of the internment policy, by writers such as Galen Fisher appeared, regularly in the Century, and helped bring awareness to the situation. In 1956 the magazine was challenged by the establishment of the evangelical Christianity Today by Carl F. H. Henry, which sought to present a theologically conservative Christian viewpoint, while restoring many social concerns abandoned by fundamentalists. Both magazines continue to flourish, with the Christian Century remaining the major independent publication within ecumenical, mainline Protestantism. In 2008 both Martin E. Marty and former editor James M. Wall concluded long runs as Century columnists. Other notable writers published by the Century over its long history include Jane Addams, Reinhold Niebuhr, Martin Luther King, Jr., Richard John Neuhaus, and Albert Schweitzer. Marty has described the Christian Century as an "anti-Zionist" publication.[3] Overview[edit] According to the evolutionary outlines of history proposed by Wells and others, mankind is simply another sort of animal, and Jesus was a remarkable human being, and nothing more. Chesterton's thesis, as expressed in Part I of the book ('On the Creature Called Man'), is that if man is really and dispassionately viewed simply as another animal, one is forced to the conclusion that he is a bizarrely unusual animal. In Part II ('On the Man Called Christ'), Chesterton argues that if Jesus is really viewed as simply another human leader and Christianity and the Church are simply another human religion, one is forced to the conclusion that he was a bizarrely unusual leader, whose followers founded a bizarrely and miraculously unusual religion and Church. "I do not believe," he says, "that the past is most truly pictured as a thing in which humanity merely fades away into nature, or civilization merely fades away into barbarism, or religion fades away into mythology, or our own religion fades away into the religions of the world. In short I do not believe that the best way to produce an outline of history is to rub out the lines." Influence on C. S. Lewis[edit] C. S. Lewis credited The Everlasting Man with "baptising" his intellect, much as George MacDonald's writings had baptised his imagination, so as to make him more than half-converted well before he could bring himself to embrace Christianity. In a 1950 letter to Sheldon Vanauken,[1] Lewis calls the book "the best popular apologetic I know," and in 1947 he wrote to Rhonda Bodle:[2] "the [very] best popular defence of the full Christian position I know is G. K. Chesterton's The Everlasting Man." The book was also cited by The Christian Century in a list of 10 books that "most shaped [Lewis'] vocational attitude and philosophy of life".[3] The 1893 Parliament, which ran from 11 to 27 September, marked the first organised gathering of representatives of Eastern and Western spiritual traditions. Today it is recognized as the occasion of the birth of formal interreligious dialogue worldwide. Absent from this event were Native American religious figures, Sikhs and other Indigenous and Earth centered religionists. (It would not be until the 1993 Parliament that these religions and spiritual traditions would be represented.) The conference did include new religious movements of the time, such as Spiritualism and Christian Science. The latter was represented by Septimus J. Hanna, who read an address written by its founder Mary Baker Eddy.[11] Rev. Henry Jessup addressing the World Parliament of Religions was the first to mention the Bahá'í Faith in the United States (it had previously been known in Europe.)[12] Since then Bahá'ís have become active participants.[13] The Parliament of Religions opened on 11 September 1893 at the World's Congress Auxiliary Building which is now The Art Institute of Chicago. Islam was represented by Mohammed Alexander Russell Webb an Anglo-American convert to Islam and the former US ambassador to Philippine. Soyen Shaku, the "First American Ancestor" of Zen, made the trip.[14] In 1893, the Buddhist preacher Anagarika Dharmapala was invited there as a representative of "Southern Buddhism" – which was the term applied at that time to the Theravada. He was a great success and by his early thirties he was already a global figure, continuing to travel and give lectures and establish viharas around the world during the next forty years. An essay by the Japanese Pure Land master Kiyozawa Manshi, "Skeleton of the philosophy of religion" was read in his absence. The Jain preacher Virchand Gandhi was invited there as representative of Jainism and his defending speech was admired. And Dharampala and Virchand Gandhi captivated western public.[15] Vivekananda (12 January 1863 – 4 July 1902), a Hindu monk (Parivrâjaka) represented India as a delegate. He is perhaps best known for his inspiring speech beginning with "Sisters and Brothers of America,"[16] through which he introduced Hinduism at the opening session of the Parliament on 11 September. Thereafter he conducted hundreds of public and private lectures and classes, disseminating tenets of Hindu philosophy in America, England and Europe. He established the Vedanta societies in America and England. He was a key figure in the introduction of Indian philosophies of Vedanta.[17] After a comprehensive tour of four years in the West he returned to India in 1897. Later he became a major force in the revival of Hinduism in India and contributing to Hindu nationalism in colonial India.[18] In Swami Vivekananda's own words, he was "condensed India". William James, the Harvard philosopher, called Vivekananda the "paragon of Vedantists". Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore's suggestion (to Nobel Laureate Romain Rolland) was– "If you want to know India, study Vivekananda. In him everything is positive and nothing negative."[19] 1930s[edit] From March to May 1930, Kyoto, Japan hosted a Great Religious Exposition (?????? Shukyo Dai-hakurankai?). Religious groups from across Japan and China exhibited at the fair.[20] All of Japan's traditional Buddhist sects had an exhibit, as well as Protestant and Catholic Christianity and the new religious sect Oomoto. The Oomoto pavilion, which included a mural of all the world's religions, hands-on pottery painting, and humorous paintings of Bodhidharma, attracted the most interest and coverage by far. Many visitors returned to the Oomoto pavilion, which was constantly being updated, six or seven times over the two months of the exposition.[21] 1993 Parliament[edit] This section does not cite any references (sources). Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2015) External video opening Ceremony 1993 In 1993, the Parliament convened at the Palmer House hotel in Chicago. Over 8,000 people from all over the world, from many diverse religions, gathered to celebrate, discuss and explore how religious traditions can work together on the critical issues which confront the world. A document, "Towards a Global Ethic: An Initial Declaration", mainly drafted by Hans Küng, set the tone for the subsequent ten days of discussion. This global ethic was endorsed by many of the attending religious and spiritual leaders who were part of the parliament assembly. Also created for the 1993 parliament was a book, A Sourcebook for the Community of Religions, by the late Joel Beversluis, which has become a standard textbook in religion classes. Unlike most textbooks of religion each entry was written by members of the religion in question. The keynote address was given by the Dalai Lama on the closing day of the assembly. Cardinal Joseph Bernardin also participated. 1999 Parliament[edit] More than 7,000 individuals from over 80 countries attended 1999 Parliament in Cape Town, South Africa. The Parliament began with a showing of the International AIDS Quilt to highlight the epidemic of AIDS in South Africa, and of the role that religious and spiritual traditions play in facing the critical issues that face the world. The event continued with hundreds of panels, symposia and workshops, offerings of prayer and meditation, plenaries and performances. The programs emphasized issues of religious, spiritual, and cultural identity, approaches to interreligious dialogue, and the role of religion in response to the critical issues facing the world today. The Parliament Assembly considered a document called A Call to Our Guiding Institutions, addressed to religion, government, business, education, and media inviting these institutions to reflect on and transform their roles at the threshold of the next century. In addition to the Call, the Parliament staff had created a book, Gifts of Service to the World, showcasing over 300 projects considered to be making a difference in the world. The Assembly members also deliberated about Gifts of Service which they could offer or could pledge to support among those projects gathered in the Gifts document Mr. Mountford Mills Mr. Ruhi Afnan The Venerable Archdeacon Williams Mr. Richard St. Barbe Baker Mr. Albert Thoka Mr. L.W.G. Malcom Professor J. Arthur Thomson Mr. Victor Branford Professor H.J. Fleure Rachel Annand Taylor Mr. Christopher Dawson Mr. William Loftus Hare Professor Patrick Geddes Reverend Tyssul Davies London Central Mosque in Regents Park, London. Main article: Islam in London Islam is London's second largest religion. 38% of England's Muslims live in London, where they represent 12.4% of the population. There were 1,012,823 Muslims reported in the 2011 census in the Greater London area.[1] London Central Mosque is a well-known landmark on the edge of Regent's Park, and there are many other mosques in the city. However, another landmark was set when Baitul Futuh Mosque was constructed in 2003 by the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, being the largest mosque in Western Europe. Hinduism in London[edit] Hindu temple at Neasden, one of the largest temples of Hinduism in Europe Over half of the UK's Hindu population live in London, where they make up 5% of the population. Every borough has a significant Hindu population and as per the 2011 census, the London borough of Harrow has the largest concentration of Hindus at 25%. The Hindu temple at Neasden was the largest temple of Hinduism in Europe,[2] until the opening of the Shri Venkateswara (Balaji) Temple in Tividale in 2006.[3] Other temples are located in nearby Wembley, Harrow and Willesden, as well as Wimbledon and Newham in South and East London. Hare Krishna are sometimes seen on the streets of London, particularly near the Radha Krishna Temple in Soho. Judaism in London[edit] Interior of the New West End Synagogue Over two-thirds of British Jews live in London, which ranks thirteenth in the world as a Jewish population centre.[4] There are significant Jewish communities in parts of north London such as Stamford Hill and Golders Green.[5] There are currently two eruvin in London; one that covers Hendon, Golders Green, and Hampstead Garden Suburb,[6][7] and another in Edgware.[8] There are two more planned eruvin; one in Stanmore,[9] and one covering Elstree/Borehamwood.[10] The first written record of Jewish settlement in London dates from 1070, although Jews may have lived there since Roman times. Bevis Marks Synagogue built in 1701 in the city of London is the oldest synagogue in the United Kingdom still in use. In 1899, a map showing by colour the proportion of the Jewish population to other residents of East London, street by street. It illustrates clearly the predominantly Jewish population at the time of the areas of Whitechapel, Spitalfields and Mile End in particular.[11] Sikhism in London[edit] Gurdwara Sri Guru Singh Sabha in Southall. London is home to a large Sikh population, who are mainly settled around the west of the city, in suburbs like Southall and Hayes. The largest Sikh temple in London (and Europe[12]) is Gurdwara Sri Guru Singh Sabha in Southall. The varied religious and ethnic history of England has left a wide range of religious buildings—churches, cathedrals, chapels, chapels of ease, synagogues, mosques and temples. Besides its spiritual importance, the religious architecture includes buildings of importance to the tourism industry and local pride. As a result of the Reformation, the ancient cathedrals remained in the possession of the then-established churches, while most Roman Catholic churches date from Victorian times or are of more recent construction (in Liverpool the ultra-modern Roman Catholic cathedral was actually completed before the more traditional Anglican cathedral, whose construction took most of the twentieth century). Notable places of worship include: Bevis Marks Synagogue – Jewish Birmingham Central Mosque – Islamic Brompton Oratory – Roman Catholic Canterbury Cathedral – Church of England Finsbury Park Mosque – Islamic Gurdwara Sri Guru Singh Sabha – Sikh Jamea Masjid – Islamic London England Temple – Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints Metropolitan Tabernacle – Baptist Neasden Temple – Hindu Preston England Temple – Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints Salisbury Cathedral – C of E Church of St Lazar – Serbian Orthodox St Chad's Cathedral – Roman Catholic St Paul's Cathedral – Church of England Saint Sophia Cathedral - Greek Orthodox Stanmore and Canons Park Synagogue – Jewish Victoria Park Mosque – Islamic Westminster Abbey – Church of England Westminster Cathedral – Roman Catholic Westminster Central Hall – Methodist York Minster – Church of England Irreligion[edit] 24.7% of people in England declared no religion in 2011, compared with 14.6% in 2001. These figures are slightly lower than the combined figures for England and Wales as Wales has a higher level of irreligion than England.[1] Norwich had the highest such proportion at 42.5%, followed closely by Brighton and Hove at 42.4%.[34] Lambeth Palace is the official residence of the Archbishop of Canterbury in London The Queen is the Supreme Governor of the Church of England, with the Archbishops of Canterbury and York below her.[158] The Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland presides over the annual Assembly, but does not lead, the Church of Scotland. The Primus of Scotland is the presiding bishop of the Scottish Episcopal Church. The Great Imam is Sheikh Mawlana Abdul Qayum, one of the most famous scholar of Europe,[159] who serves the largest Muslim congregation in the Great Britain.[160] The Archbishop of Westminster is the leader of the Roman Catholic bishops of England and Wales. The de facto head of the Roman Catholic Church in Scotland is the most senior archbishop, currently Leo Cushley, Archbishop of St Andrews and Edinburgh (see Bishops' Conference of Scotland). The Primate of All Ireland exercises his ecclesiastical jurisdiction in Northern Ireland as well as the Republic of Ireland. The Archbishop of Wales is one of the six diocesan bishops of the Church in Wales, chosen by his colleagues to hold the higher designation in addition to his own diocese. The Chief Rabbi is the title of the leader of Orthodox Judaism in the Commonwealth. The Moderator of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in Ireland presides over, but does not lead, the Church. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is led by the Europe Area Presidency. The current area president is Elder Erich W. Kopischke with Elder Gérald J. Caussé and Elder José A. Teixeira as first and second counsellors respectively. The Caliph Masih of the Ahmadiyya Community is Mirza Masroor Ahmad, and Fazl Mosque is his headquarters. Notable places of worship[edit] CHRISTIAN Westminster Cathedral – Roman Catholic St Mary's Cathedral, Edinburgh – Roman Catholic Canterbury Cathedral – Church of England Dormition Cathedral, London – Russian Orthodox Holy Trinity Cathedral, Down – Church of Ireland Kingsway International Christian Centre – Charismatic London England Temple – Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Metropolitan Tabernacle – Baptist St Anne's Cathedral, Belfast – Church of Ireland St David's Cathedral – Church in Wales St Giles' Cathedral, Edinburgh – Church of Scotland St Lazar's Church, Bournville – Serbian Orthodox St Mary's Cathedral, Edinburgh – Scottish Episcopal St Paul's Cathedral – Church of England St Sarkis, Kensington – Armenian Apostolic St Sophia's Cathedral, London – Greek Orthodox Westminster Abbey – Church of England Westminster Central Hall – Methodist Main article: History of the Jews in Scotland Garnethill Synagogue (built 1879) in Glasgow is the oldest synagogue in Scotland Towards the end of the nineteenth century there had been an influx of Jews, most from eastern Europe and escaping poverty and persecution. Many were skilled in the tailoring, furniture and fur trades and congregated in the working class districts of Lowland urban centres, like the Gorbals in Glasgow. The largest community in Glasgow had perhaps reached 5,000 by the end of the century.[39] A synagogue was built at Garnethill in 1879. Over 8,000 Jews were resident in Scotland in 1903.[61] Refugees from Nazism and the Second World War further augmented the Scottish Jewish community, which has been estimated to have reached 80,000 in the middle of the century.[62] According to the 2001 census, approximately 6,400 Jews lived in Scotland, most of whom were in Glasgow (about 5,000) and the next largest community in Edinburgh (about 1,000).[63] By the 2011 census this had fallen to 5,887 persons.[1] Scotland's Jewish population continues to be predominantly urban. As with Christianity, the practising Jewish population continues to fall, as many younger Jews either become secular, or intermarry with other faiths. Scottish Jews have also emigrated in large numbers to the USA, England and the Commonwealth for economic reasons, as other Scots have done. Hinduism[edit] Main article: Hinduism in Scotland The bulk of Scottish Hindus settled there in the second half of the 20th century. At the 2001 Census, 5,600 people identified as Hindu, which equated to 0.1% of the Scottish population.[64] Most Scottish Hindus are of Indian origin, or at least from neighbouring countries, such as Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Nepal and Bangladesh. Many of these came after Idi Amin's expulsion from Uganda in the 1970s, and some also came from South Africa. There are also a few of Indonesian and Afghan origin. A temple in the West End of Glasgow, opened in 2006.[65] However, it was severely damaged by a fire in May 2010.[66] The ISKCON aka "Hare Krishna" also operates out of Lesmahagow in South Lanarkshire. There are also temples in Edinburgh and Dundee with plans announced in 2008 for a temple in Aberdeen.[67] Bahá'í Faith[edit] Main article: Bahá'í Faith in Scotland John Esslemont (1874–1925), one of the first Scottish converts to the Bahá'í Faith Scotland's Bahá'í history began around 1905 when European visitors, Scots among them, met `Abdu'l-Bahá, then head of the religion, in Ottoman Palestine.[68] One of the first and most prominent Scots who became a Bahá'í was John Esslemont (1874–1925). Starting in the 1940s a process of moving to promulgate the religion called pioneering by Bahá'ís began for the purpose of teaching the religion.[69] These were joined by new converts and established local Spiritual Assemblies and eventually a Bahá'í Council for all Scotland was elected under the National Assembly of the Bahá'ís of the United Kingdom. According to the 2011 Census in Scotland, 459 people living there declared themselves to be Bahá'ís,[3] compared to a 2004 figure of approximately 5,000 Bahá'ís in the United Kingdom.[70] Neopaganism[edit] Main articles: Modern paganism and Neopaganism in the United Kingdom Modern Neopagan religions, such as Wicca, Neo-druidism and Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism have their origins in academic interest and romantic revivalism, which emerged in new religious movements in the twentieth century.[71] Gerald Gardner, a retired British civil servant, founded modern Wicca. He cultivated his Scottish connections and initiated his first Scottish followers in the 1950s.[72] The Findhorn community, founded in 1962 by Peter and Eileen Caddy, became a centre of a variety of new age beliefs that mixed beliefs that included occultism, animism and eastern religious beliefs.[73] The ancient architectural landscape of pre-Christian Britain, such as stone circles and dolmens, gives pagan beliefs an attraction, identity and nationalist legitimacy.[74] The rise of pan-Celticism may also have increased the attractiveness of Celtic neopaganism.[75] In the 2011 census 5,282 identified as Pagan or a related belief.[3] Religious leaders[edit] Church of Scotland: The Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland convenes the annual Assembly, but does not "lead", the Church of Scotland. Moderators are limited to serving one year in office. The Moderator-designate is nominated in October and takes office in the following May. The Moderator for 2014–15 is the Right Reverend Doctor John Chalmers, after the Rev. Dr. Angus Morrison was unable to take up the role in May 2014 for health reasons.[76] Roman Catholic Church in Scotland: Leo Cushley, Archbishop of St Andrews and Edinburgh (see Bishops' Conference of Scotland, installed September 8, 2013). Scottish Episcopal Church: The Presiding Bishop of the Scottish Episcopal Church is called the Primus. The current Primus is David Chillingworth, Diocese of Saint Andrews, Dunkeld and Dunblane, who has held the role since 13 June 2009.[77] Free Church of Scotland: The Moderator of the General Assembly of the Free Church of Scotland for 2013 is the Rev. Angus J. Howat, an elder at Ayr and Kilwinning Free Church.[78] Free Church of Scotland (Continuing): The current Moderator of the General Assembly of the Free Church of Scotland (Continuing) is the Rev. James I Gracie who is the minister in Edinburgh. Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland: The current Moderator of Synod for the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland is the Rev D Campbell. Reformed Presbyterian Church of Scotland: The Moderator of the RPCS is the Rev. Gerald Milligan from Stranraer. The Korean Presbyterian Church started through the mission of the Presbyterian Church (USA) and the Australian Presbyterian theological tradition is central to the United States. But after independence, the 'Presbyterian Church in Korea (KoRyuPa)' advocated a Dutch Reformed position. In the 21st century, a new General Assembly of the Orthodox Presbyterian Church of Korea(president Seung-moo Ha) in 2012 declared itself an authentic historical succession of Scottish Presbyterian John Knox. Taiwan[edit] The Presbyterian Church in Taiwan (PCT) is by far the largest Protestant denomination in Taiwan, with some 238,372 members as of 2009 (including a majority of the island's aborigines). English Presbyterian missionary James Laidlaw Maxwell established the first Presbyterian church in Tainan in 1865. His colleague George Leslie Mackay, of the Canadian Presbyterian Mission, was active in Danshui and north Taiwan from 1872 to 1901; he founded the island's first university and hospital, and created a written script for Taiwanese Minnan. The English and Canadian missions joined together as the PCT in 1912. One of the few churches permitted to operate in Taiwan through the era of Japanese rule (1895–1945), the PCT experienced rapid growth during the era of Guomindang-imposed martial law (1949–1987), in part due to its support for democracy, human rights, and Taiwan independence. Former ROC president Lee Teng-hui (in office 1988–2000) is a Presbyterian. India[edit] Jowai Presbyterian Church, India In the mainly Christian Indian state of Mizoram, the Presbyterian denomination is the largest denomination; it was brought to the region with missionaries from Wales in 1894. Prior to Mizoram, the Welsh Presbyterians (missionaries) started venturing into the north-east of India through the Khasi Hills (presently located within the state of Meghalaya in India) and established Presbyterian churches all over the Khasi Hills from the 1840s onwards. Hence there is a strong presence of Presbyterians in Shillong (the present capital of Meghalaya) and the areas adjoining it. The Welsh missionaries built their first church in Sohra (aka Cherrapunji) in 1846. Presbyterians participated in the mergers that resulted in the Church of North India and the Church of South India.Sohra Oceania[edit] Australia[edit] See also: List of Presbyterian denominations in Australia Timeline showing the Presbyterian denominations in Australia over the past 100 years, and the movement of congregations from one to another In Australia, Presbyterianism is the fourth largest denomination of Christianity, with nearly 600,000 Australians claiming to be Presbyterian in the 2006 Commonwealth Census. Presbyterian churches were founded in each colony, some with links to the Church of Scotland and others to the Free Church. There were also congregations originating from United Presbyterian Church of Scotland as well as a number founded by John Dunmore Lang. Most of these bodies merged between 1859 and 1870, and in 1901 formed a federal union called the Presbyterian Church of Australia but retaining their state assemblies. The Presbyterian Church of Eastern Australia representing the Free Church of Scotland tradition, and congregations in Victoria of the Reformed Presbyterian Church, originally from Ireland, are the other existing denominations dating from colonial times. In 1977, two thirds of the Presbyterian Church of Australia, along with most of the Congregational Union of Australia and all the Methodist Church of Australasia, combined to form the Uniting Church in Australia. The third who did not unite had various reasons for so acting, often cultural attachment but often conservative theological or social views. The permission for the ordination of women given in 1974 was rescinded in 1991 without affecting the two or three existing woman ministers. The approval of women elders given in the 1960s has been rescinded in all states except New South Wales, which has the largest membership. The theology of the church is now generally conservative and Reformed. A number of small Presbyterian denominations have arisen since the 1950s through migration or schism. New Zealand[edit] Kaikorai Presbyterian Church, New Zealand In New Zealand, Presbyterian is the dominant denomination in Otago and Southland due largely to the rich Scottish and to a lesser extent Ulster-Scots heritage in the region. The area around Christchurch, Canterbury, is dominated philosophically by the Anglican (Episcopalian) denomination. Originally there were two branches of Presbyterianism in New Zealand, the northern Presbyterian church which existed in the North Island and the parts of the South Island north of the Waitaki River, and the Synod of Otago and Southland, founded by Free Church settlers in southern South Island. The two churches merged in 1901, forming what is now the Presbyterian Church of Aotearoa New Zealand. In addition to the Presbyterian Church of Aotearoa New Zealand, there is also a more conservative Presbyterian church called Grace Presbyterian Church of New Zealand. Many of its members left the largely liberal PCANZ because they were seeking a more Biblical church. It has 17 churches throughout New Zealand. Vanuatu[edit] The Presbyterian Church in Vanuatu is the largest denomination in the country, with approximately one-third of the population of Vanuatu members of the church. The PCV was taken to Vanuatu by missionaries from Scotland. The PCV (Presbyterian Church of Vanuatu) is headed by a moderator with offices in Port Vila. The PCV is particularly strong in the provinces of Tafea, Shefa, and Malampa. The Province of Sanma is mainly Presbyterian with a strong Roman Catholic minority in the Francophone areas of the province. There are some Presbyterian people, but no organised Presbyterian churches in Penama and Torba, both of which are traditionally Anglican. Vanuatu is the only country in the South Pacific with a significant Presbyterian heritage and membership. The PCV is a founding member of the Vanuatu Christian Council (VCC). The PCV runs many primary schools and Onesua secondary school. The church is strong in the rural villages 5 References 6 External links Early life and education[edit] Kim was born in Geoje on 20 December 1927, during a time when Korea was under Imperial Japanese rule. He was the eldest of one son and five daughters in his family.[1] During the Korean War, Kim served in the South Korean military. In 1952, he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in Philosophy from Seoul National University.[2] Career[edit] In 1954, Kim was elected to the National Assembly of South Korea and served nine terms representing districts in Geoje and Pusan. Kim was the youngest man ever to serve in the South Korean National Assembly.[3] Kim resigned his National Assembly seat when Syngman Rhee attempted to amend the constitution of South Korea and became a leading critic, along with Kim Dae-jung, of the military governments of Park Chung-hee and Chun Doo-hwan. New Democratic Party leader[edit] In 1974, he was elected as the president of the New Democratic Party. While he temporarily lost his power within the party in 1976, Kim made a political comeback during the final year of Park Chung-hee's rule. Kim took a hardline policy of never compromising or cooperating with Park's Democratic Republican Party until the Yushin Constitution was repealed and boldly criticized Park's dictatorship, which could be punished with imprisonment under the new constitution.[4] In August 1979, Kim allowed around 200 female workers at the Y.H. Trading Company to use the headquarters of New Democratic Party as a place for their sit-in demonstration and pledged to protect them. One thousand policemen raided the party headquarters and arrested the workers.[5] One female worker died in the process and many lawmakers trying to protect them were severely beaten, some requiring hospitalization. The YH Incident garnered widespread criticism and led to Kim's condemnation, with an assertion that Park's dictatorship would soon collapse.[6] After this incident, Park was determined to remove Kim from the political scene, like the imprisoned Kim Dae-jung, and instructed the South Korean Central Intelligence Agency (KCIA) to engineer such a move. In September 1979, a court order suspended Kim's presidency of the New Democratic Party.[7][8] When Kim called on the United States to stop supporting Park's dictatorship in an interview with the New York Times,[7][9] Park wanted to have Kim imprisoned while the Carter Administration, concerned over increasing human right violations, issued a strong warning not to persecute members of the opposition party. When Kim was expelled from the National Assembly in October 1979, the United States recalled its ambassador back to Washington, D.C.,[6] and all 66 lawmakers of the New Democratic Party resigned from the National Assembly.[9] When it became known that the South Korean government was planning to accept the resignations selectively, uprisings broke out in Kim's hometown of Pusan. It was the biggest demonstration since the Syngman Rhee presidency, and spread to nearby Masan and other cities, with students and citizens calling for an end to the dictatorship.[6] The crisis was one of the causes for the assassination of Park Chung-hee in 26 October 1979 by KCIA Director Kim Jae-gyu.[7] House arrest[edit] The government's oppressive stance towards the opposition continued under Chun Doo-hwan, who seized power with a military coup on 12 December 1979. Kim Young-Sam was expelled from the National Assembly for his democratic activities and banned from politics from 1980 to 1985. In 1983, he undertook a 21-day hunger strike protesting the dictatorship of Chun Doo-hwan.[10] Failed presidential run, 1987[edit] When the first democratic presidential election was held in 1987 after Chun's retirement, Kim Young-sam and Kim Dae-jung ran against each other, splitting the opposition vote and enabling ex-general Roh Tae-woo, Chun's hand-picked successor, to win the election. In 1990, he unexpectedly merged his Democratic Reunification Party with Roh's ruling Democratic Justice Party to form the Democratic Liberal Party, now the Grand National Party.[4] Presidency (1993–1998)[edit] As the candidate of the governing party, he defeated Kim Dae-jung in the 1992 presidential election. He was only the third civilian to hold the office, and the first since 1962. The Kim Young-sam administration attempted to reform the government and economy. One of the first acts of his government was to start an anti-corruption campaign, requiring government and military officials to publish their financial records, precipitating the resignation of several high-ranking officers and cabinet members.[11] He had Chun and Roh arrested on charges of corruption and treason.[10] Kim also granted amnesty to thousands of political prisoners, and removed the criminal convictions of pro-democracy protesters who had been arrested during the Gwangju massacre in the aftermath of the Coup d'état of December Twelfth.[11] The anti-corruption campaign was also part of an attempt to reform the chaebol, the large South Korean conglomerates which dominated the economy. However, the implication of corruption on the part of his second son, led to a loss of confidence; his new ministerial party, the DLP lost its narrow majority in the National Assembly in 1996. Kia Motors collapsed soon thereafter, setting off a chain of events which embroiled South Korea in the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis during the last year of his presidency.[11] Later life and death[edit] After his presidency, Kim travelled the world promoting democracy, and speaking at events such as Towards a Global Forum on New Democracies in Taiwan in January 2007.[12] He died in Seoul on 22 November 2015, from heart failure, at the age of 87.[2] Personal life[edit] Kim was a member of the Chunghyun Presbyterian Church and was fluent in Japanese and his native Korean. He was married to Son Myung-soon.[13] He was survived by his children, two sons and three daughters, as well as his five younger sisters.[12] 4 Politics 5 Notable residents 6 References 7 External links History[edit] In the 17th century, the land that is now Morningside Heights was known as Vandewater's Heights, named for the landowner.[2] On September 16, 1776, the Battle of Harlem Heights was fought in Morningside Heights, with the most intense fighting occurring in a sloping wheat field that is now the location of Barnard College. A plaque by the Columbia University gate on 117th Street and Broadway commemorates this battle.[12] Use of the name "Morningside Heights" for the neighborhood arose in the 1890s when development of the area commenced. The name "Bloomingdale" – which referred to part of the present-day neighborhood of Manhattan Valley, located to the south – was also used for the area around the Bloomingdale Insane Asylum, which was located at the present location of the main campus of Columbia University. However, other names such as "Morningside Hill" and "Riverside Heights" were used for the area.[13] No single name was commonly used for the neighborhood by the time Columbia University, Teachers College, the Cathedral of Saint John the Divine, and St. Luke's Hospital started construction. Two names eventually gained the most use; "Morningside Heights" was preferred by the two colleges, while "Cathedral Heights" was preferred by St. John's and St. Luke's. After about 1898, "Morningside Heights" became the most generally accepted, although the diocese at St. John's continued to call the neighborhood Cathedral Heights well into the 20th century. The term "Morningside" came from the park on the east flank of the plateau, which was lit up by the rising sun and which was called "Morning Side Park" in 1870 when the city parks commissioner recommended a survey of the land.[10] The area, ca. 1926 Grant's Tomb Many apartment buildings and rowhouses, amongst the first to use elevators in residential buildings, were built for New York's prosperous middle class in the first two decades of the twentieth century and most of these buildings are still extant.[10] By the mid-20th century the increasing prevalence of Single Room Occupancy (S.R.O.) hotels led to attendant socioeconomic problems and a decline in the neighborhood. Jane Jacobs The Death and Life of Great American Cities presented the neighborhood as a key example of the failure of the urban planning techniques of the era. In 1947 David Rockefeller became involved in a major middle-income housing development when he was elected as chairman of Morningside Heights Inc. by fourteen major institutions that were based in the area, including Columbia University. In 1951 the organization developed Morningside Gardens, a six-building apartment complex to house middle-income families from all ethnic backgrounds. Morningside Gardens, an experimental co-op project, opened in 1957 between 123rd and LaSalle Streets, Broadway, and Amsterdam Avenue. Social problems in the area prompted Columbia to purchase much of the neighborhood's real estate, leading to accusations of forced eviction and gentrification. This process reached its nadir in 1968, when protests erupted in both the neighborhood and on Columbia's campus over the university's proposal to build a gym in Morningside Park. Residents alleged that the park's proposed separate entrance for Harlem residents on the lower level of the park was segregated, and that public park space was being annexed by a wealthy private institution. The university was eventually forced to abandon the plan. However, Columbia University has still expanded its presence in the neighborhood markedly over the last few decades, and gentrification and urban renewal have proceeded apace. In January 2008 the university received approval from the City Council to expand significantly in nearby Manhattanville.[14] Since the late 1990s, some businesses in the area started using the name SoHa (or "South of Harlem") to refer to the neighborhood, as seen in the names of Max's SoHa restaurant and the former SoHa nightclub in Morningside Heights.[13][15] Sites of interest[edit] The label Academic Acropolis has been used to describe the area, which sits on a high natural point in Manhattan and contains numerous academic institutions.[16] Much of the neighborhood is the campus of Columbia University, and the university owns a large amount of non-campus real estate. Other educational institutions in the neighborhood include Barnard College, Union Theological Seminary, New York Theological Seminary, Jewish Theological Seminary of America, Manhattan School of Music, Teachers College, Bank Street College of Education, St. Hilda's & St. Hugh's School, The School at Columbia University, Bank Street School for Children, The Cathedral School of St. John the Divine, and for the younger residents, Columbia Greenhouse nursery school.[17] NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Studies is also located in the neighborhood, directly above Tom's Restaurant in a building owned by Columbia University. Non-academic landmarks in Morningside Heights include the Cathedral Church of Saint John the Divine, Grant's Tomb, Riverside Church, Interchurch Center, Corpus Christi Church, International House, and St. Luke's-Roosevelt Hospital Center. Community Food and Juice, an eco-conscious restaurant, is located at 2893 Broadway between West 112th and 113th Streets.[18] In popular culture[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2015) The real Tom's Restaurant, which appeared in Seinfeld Tom's Restaurant, on Broadway at 112th Street, was featured in the 1980s song "Tom's Diner" by Suzanne Vega, an alumna of Barnard College.[19] Later, exterior shots were used on the television sitcom Seinfeld as a stand-in for the diner hangout of the show's principal characters. Further north, the West End Bar served especially as a meeting place for writers of the Beat Generation in the 1940s/1950s, as well as for student activists prior to, during, and after the Columbia University protests of 1968. The bar's jazz room was run by jazz historian and DJ Phil Schaap for 17 years. In the late 2000s, the establishment was absorbed into a Cuban restaurant chain, Havana Central, and became known as Havana Central at the West End. Transportation[edit] Cathedral Parkway – 110th Street station Tenth Avenue (Manhattan) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia "Tenth Avenue" redirects here. For other uses, see Tenth Avenue (disambiguation). Route map: Bing / Google Tenth Avenue at 17th Street, as seen from the High Line Amsterdam Avenue looking north from 120th Street toward Harlem Amsterdam Avenue at 164th Street in Washington Heights Tenth Avenue, known as Amsterdam Avenue between 59th Street and 193rd Street, is a north-south thoroughfare on the West Side of Manhattan in New York City. It carries uptown (northbound) traffic as far as West 110th Street – also known as Cathedral Parkway for the Cathedral Church of St. John the Divine – after which it continues as a two-way street. Contents [hide] 1 Geography 2 History 3 Transportation 4 Notable sites 5 Gallery 6 In popular culture 7 References 8 External links Geography[edit] Tenth Avenue begins a block below Gansevoort Street[1] and Eleventh Avenue in the West Village / Meatpacking District. For the southernmost stretch (the four blocks below 14th Street), Tenth Avenue runs southbound. North of 14th Street, Tenth Avenue runs uptown (northbound) for 45 blocks as a one-way street until its intersection with West 59th Street, where it becomes Amsterdam Avenue but continues without interruption. Amsterdam Avenue continues as a one-way street northbound until Cathedral Parkway, where two-way traffic resumes. As Amsterdam Avenue, the thoroughfare stretches 129 blocks north – narrowing to one lane in each direction as it passes through Yeshiva University's Wilf Campus, between 184th and 186th Streets – before connecting with Fort George Avenue south of Highbridge Park at West 193rd Street. On the north side of Highbridge Park, unconnected to Amsterdam Avenue on the south side, Tenth Avenue then runs for slightly less than a mile from the northern terminus of the Harlem River Drive at Dyckman Street, to the intersection of West 218th Street and Broadway, where it merges into Broadway. History[edit] Tenth Avenue runs through the Chelsea and Hell's Kitchen neighborhoods on the west side of the borough, and then as Amsterdam Avenue, through the Upper West Side, Harlem and Washington Heights. Much of these areas were working class or poor for much of the 20th century. The street has long been noted for its commercial traffic, and had grade-level railroad lines through the early 20th century. In the 19th century, when the West Side Line ran along the Avenue, a "Tenth Avenue Cowboy" was paid to ride a horse and warn people of an approaching street running train. The lines were later elevated above street level. "Amsterdam Avenue" was intended to recall the Dutch roots of Manhattan's earliest colonization in the 17th century. According to Sanna Feirstein's Naming New York: What is now Amsterdam Avenue was laid out in the 1811 Commissioners' Plan as 10th Avenue and opened from 59th Street to Fort George Avenue in 1816. The name was changed in 1890 in a bid on the part of Upper West Side landowners to confer a measure of old-world cachet to their real estate investments in an area that had yet to catch on. The new avenue name supported the speculators' claim that this section would become "the New City" and a "new, New Amsterdam."[2] Tenth Avenue and Amsterdam Avenue were converted to carry one-way traffic northbound in two stages. South of its intersection with Broadway the avenue was converted on November 6, 1948.[3][4] The rest to 110th Street was converted on December 6, 1951.[5] Amsterdam Avenue continues to carry two-way traffic north of 110th Street. During the real estate boom of the late 20th century, Amsterdam Avenue from roughly 59th Street to 96th Street became one of the city's most expensive residential districts. Transportation[edit] The M11 bus runs northbound along the avenue. North of 72nd Street, the M7 bus also runs northbound on the avenue; north of 110th Street, the M11 bus runs in both directions along Amsterdam Avenue. As part of the 7 Subway Extension, the 7 <7> trains are to be extended to 34th Street. An intermediate stop, Tenth Avenue, was originally planned but it was dropped from the official plans in 2008.[6][7][8] The 1 trains serves two stations along Tenth Avenue: 207th Street, and 215th Street. Notable sites[edit] Cathedral Church of Saint John the Divine City College of New York Columbia University Empire Diner General Theological Seminary High Line Park Hudson Yards Redevelopment Project John Jay College LaGuardia High School Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts Manhattan Plaza Martin Luther King, Jr. Educational Campus MiMA New York Presbyterian Medical Center Sherman Square St. Luke's-Roosevelt Hospital Center Verdi Square West-Park Presbyterian Church Yeshiva University Gallery[edit] The Desmond Tutu Center of the General Theological Seminary at 20th-21st Streets The Empire Diner at 22nd Street The Yotel and MiMA at 42nd Street The interior of the Holy Name of Jesus Roman Catholic Church at 96th Street The American Youth Hostels building at 103rd Street The Cathedral of St. John the Divine at 110th Street Harlem From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For other uses, see Harlem (disambiguation). Coordinates: 40°48'32.52?N 73°56'54.14?W Harlem Neighborhood of Manhattan Brick townhouses along a street, which is lined with trees. Stately Harlem apartment buildings adjacent to Morningside Park Nickname(s): "Black mecca", "Heaven" Motto: "Making It!" Country United States State New York County New York City New York Founded 1658 Named for Haarlem, Netherlands Area[1] • Total 10.03 km2 (3.871 sq mi) Population (2000)[2][3][4] • Total 335,109 • Density 33,000/km2 (87,000/sq mi) Economics ZIP codes 10026, 10027, 10029, 10030, 10031, 10035, 10037, 10039 Area code 212, 917, 646 Harlem is a large neighborhood within the northern section of the New York City borough of Manhattan. Since the 1920s, Harlem has been known as a major African-American residential, cultural and business center. Originally a Dutch village, formally organized in 1658,[5] it is named after the city of Haarlem in the Netherlands. Harlem's history has been defined by a series of economic boom-and-bust cycles, with significant population shifts accompanying each cycle.[6] African-American residents began to arrive en masse in 1905, with numbers fed by the Great Migration. In the 1920s and 1930s, Central and West Harlem were the focus of the "Harlem Renaissance", an outpouring of artistic work without precedent in the American black community. However, with job losses in the time of the Great Depression and the deindustrialization of New York City after World War II, rates of crime and poverty increased significantly. Harlem's black population peaked in the 1950s.[7] In 2008, the United States Census found that for the first time since the 1930s, less than half of residents were black, and black residents only counted for 40% of the population.[8] Since New York City's revival in the late 20th century, Harlem has been experiencing gentrification. Despite this influx of new wealth, many residents of West, Central, and East Harlem rely on welfare, at 34.9%, 43.3%, and 46.5% of the population, respectively.[9] Contents [hide] 1 Geography 1.1 Emergency services and representation 2 History 3 Culture 3.1 Religious life 3.2 Landmarks 4 Population and demographics 4.1 Central Harlem 4.2 West Harlem 4.3 East Harlem 5 Social issues 5.1 Poverty and health 5.2 Crime 6 Education 7 Transportation 7.1 Bridges 7.2 Public transportation 8 See also 9 References 10 External links Geography[edit] Steve Tikolo widely regarded in cricket as the best batsman outside of the test playing nations Robert Wangila McDonald Mariga soccer player now based in Italy plays for Serie A club Internazionale Victor Wanyama soccer player now based in England plays for Southampton and captains the Kenya national team Musicians edit Musa Juma Rhumba Maestro Fundi Konde David Kabaka Eric Wainaina musician Henrie Mutuku Daniel Owino Misiani Suzzana Owíyo Tony Nyadundo David Mathenge a k a Nameless Ken Ring Fadhili William of Malaika fame Jua Cali Stella Mwangi Nonini Roger Whittaker Dave Okumu Aakash Shah DJ Nairobi Joseph Kamaru Kikuyu songwriter Mukhtar Shakhanov Aliya Yussupova Dariga Nazarbayeva Absattar Derbisali Marat Tazhin Nayef Al Qadi Ali Abu al Ragheb Ali Khulqi Al Sharyri Ali Suheimat Sheikh Attallah Suheimat Salah Suheimat MP Dr Tareq Suheimat Bahjat Talhouni former Prime Minister Fayez Tarawneh Novelists poets researchers and writers edit Nasr Abdel Aziz Eleyan Samer Libdeh researcher writer Suleiman Mousa historian writer Haider Mahmoud poet writer Abdel Rahman Munif novelist Samer Raimouny poet activist Mustafa Wahbi Mustafa Wahbi Al Tal poet Military men edit Captain Muath al Kasasbeh Royal Jordanian Air Force pilot captured held hostage and burned alive by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant Habis Al Majali Abdelsalam al Majali Brigadier General Abdullah Ayasrah General Muhammad Suheimat died Physicians edit Abdelsalam al Majali Daoud Hanania Tareq Suheimat Athletes edit Amer Deeb Dima and Lama Hattab ultramarathon runners Musicians edit Mahmoud Radaideh Former ambassadors edit Nabil Talhouni Business people edit Iman Mutlaq Mohammed Shehadeh José Ferrer Juano Hernández Jennifer Lopez Rita Moreno Choe Yong–Sool Seo Bok–Sub Sin Sang–Chul Kim Hak–Bong Kim Gwi–Chul Kim Jang–Sub Kim Jae–hee Kim gwi–hwa Artists edit Visual artists edit Main article List of Korean painters Media artists edit Paik Nam June Dancers edit Sujin Kang Hong Professional Break Dancer Red Bull BC One Halla Pai Huhm Filmmakers edit See also List of Korean film directors Ahn Byeong ki Bong Joon ho Hong Sang soo Im Kwon taek Jang Joon hwan Kim Jee woon Kim Ki duk Lee Chang dong Park Chan wook Nelson Shin Song Hae sung Yoon Je kyoon Poets and authors edit See also List of Korean language poets Baek Minseok Baek Seok Bang Hyun seok Chae Ho ki Chan Jeong Cheong Chi yong poet Choi Seung ho poet Cho Sung ki novelist Choi Il nam novelist Choi Soo cheol Chun Woon young Do Jong hwan poet Gu Hyo seo Ha Geun chan author Hailji author Han Bi ya a travel writer Han Mahlsook novelist Ha Seong ran author Heo Su gyeong poet Hong Sung won author Hwang In suk poet Hwang Ji u poet Hyun Kil un Jang Eun jin Jang Jeong il Jang Seok nam poet Jeon Gyeong rin Jeon Sang guk Jeong Do sang Jung Ihyun Jung Hansuk Jung Mi kyung Kim Byeol ah Kye Yong mook Han Chang hun author Kang Chol hwan an author of The Aquariums of Pyongyang Kang Sok kyong Kang Young sook Ko Un Kim Sa in Kim Eon Kim Gi taek Kim Gwangrim Kim Gyeong uk Kim Haki Kim Hu ran Kim Jae Young Kim Jong gil Kim Ju yeong Kim Kwang kyu Kim Kyung ju Kim Mi wol Kim Sang ok Kim Sinyong Kim Seon wu Kim Seong dong Kim Seung hee Kim Sowol Kim Tak hwan Kim Wonu Kim Yeong hyeon Kim Yong man Kwak Jae gu Kwon Jeong Saeng Kwon Yeo sun Lee Eun sang poet Lee Kang baek Korean playwright Lee Ho cheol Lee Hye gyeong Lee Hyeonggi born Lee In hwa Lee Jangwook author and poet Lee Ki ho author Lee Mun ku author Lee Oyoung author and critic Lee Soon won Lee Sungboo poet and novelist Lee Yuksa Lee Yun gi Lee Yuntaek dramatist and poet Ma Jonggi born Lee Mankyo Moon Chung hee Moon Taejun Nam Jung hyun Oh Kyu won born Oh Sangwon author Oh Soo yeon author Oh Taeseok Park Chong hwa novelist Paik Gahuim Park Hee jin Park Hyoung su Park Jaesam born Park Jeong dae Park Mok wol Park Kyung ni Ynhui Park Park Sang ryung Park Sangsoon Park Taesun Park Tae won Park Yeonghan Park Yong rae Han Yong un Ra Hee duk Seo Jeong in Seo Hajin Shin Yong mok born Sim Yunkyung So Young en Song Gisuk Song Giwon Song Sokze Song Yeong Sung Chan gyeong – Yi In seong Yi Kyoung ja Yun Dong ju Fashion designers edit Andre Kim Richard Chai Cho Young Wan Businesspeople edit See also Category South Korean businesspeople Ahn Cheol Soo Chung Ju yung Chung Mong hun Euh Yoon dae Lee Byung chul Lee Kun Hee David Chang Entertainers edit Actors edit See also List of South Korean actors Jang Keun suk Jung Joon ho Daniel Dae Kim Jung Il woo Kim Woo Bin Lee Dong wook Park Yoochun Comedians edit Ryan Bang Won Ho Chung Defconn H Eugene Margaret Cho Haha Jeong Hyeong don Jeong Jun ha