Founding of the Muhammad Ali dynasty Muhammad Ali Pasha was the founder of the Muhammad Ali dynasty and the first Khedive of Egypt and Sudan. Main article: History of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty After the French were expelled, power was seized in 1805 by Muhammad Ali Pasha, an Albanian military commander of the Ottoman army in Egypt. While he carried the title of viceroy of Egypt, his subordination to the Ottoman porte was merely nominal.[citation needed] Muhammad Ali established a dynasty that was to rule Egypt until the revolution of 1952. The introduction in 1820 of long-staple cotton transformed its agriculture into a cash-crop monoculture before the end of the century, concentrating land ownership and shifting production towards international markets.[43] Muhammad Ali annexed Northern Sudan (1820–1824), Syria (1833), and parts of Arabia and Anatolia; but in 1841 the European powers, fearful lest he topple the Ottoman Empire itself, forced him to return most of his conquests to the Ottomans. His military ambition required him to modernise the country: he built industries, a system of canals for irrigation and transport, and reformed the civil service.[43] Muhammad Ali Pasha evolved the military from one that convened under the tradition of the corvée to a great modernised army. He introduced conscription of the male peasantry in 19th century Egypt, and took a novel approach to create his great army, strengthening it with numbers and in skill. Education and training of the new soldiers was not an option; the new concepts were furthermore enforced by isolation. The men were held in barracks to avoid distraction of their growth as a military unit to be reckoned with. The resentment for the military way of life eventually faded from the men and a new ideology took hold, one of nationalism and pride. It was with the help of this newly reborn martial unit that Muhammad Ali imposed his rule over Egypt.[44] Muhammad Ali was succeeded briefly by his son Ibrahim (in September 1848), then by a grandson Abbas I (in November 1848), then by Said (in 1854), and Isma'il (in 1863). End of Ottoman Egypt and the European intrusion (1867–1914) Main article: Khedivate of Egypt Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty remained nominally an Ottoman province. It was granted the status of an autonomous vassal state or Khedivate in 1867, a status which was to remain in place until 1914.

The Suez Canal, built in partnership with the French, was completed in 1869. Its construction led to enormous debt to European banks, and caused popular discontent because of the onerous taxation it required. In 1875 Ismail was forced to sell Egypt's share in the canal to the British Government. Within three years this led to the imposition of British and French controllers who sat in the Egyptian cabinet, and, "with the financial power of the bondholders behind them, were the real power in the Government."[45] In later years, the dynasty became a British puppet.[43] Isma'il and Tewfik Pasha governed Egypt as a quasi-independent state under Ottoman suzerainty until the British occupation of 1882. Female nationalists demonstrating in Cairo, 1919 Local dissatisfaction with Ismail and with European intrusion led to the formation of the first nationalist groupings in 1879, with Ahmad Urabi a prominent figure. Fearing a reduction of their control, the UK and France intervened militarily, bombarding Alexandria and crushing the Egyptian army at the battle of Tel el-Kebir.[46] They reinstalled Ismail's son Tewfik as figurehead of a de facto British protectorate.[47] In 1906, the Dinshaway Incident prompted many neutral Egyptians to join the nationalist movement. British protectorate Main article: History of Egypt under the British The Khedivate of Egypt remained a de jure Ottoman province until 5 November 1914,[48] when it was declared a British protectorate in reaction to the decision of the Young Turks of the Ottoman Empire to join World War I on the side of the Central Powers. In 1914, the Protectorate was made official, and the title of the head of state was changed to sultan, to repudiate the vestigial suzerainty of the Ottoman sultan, who was backing the Central powers in World War I. Abbas II was deposed as khedive and replaced by his uncle, Hussein Kamel, as sultan.[49] After World War I, Saad Zaghlul and the Wafd Party led the Egyptian nationalist movement to a majority at the local Legislative Assembly. When the British exiled Zaghlul and his associates[dubious – discuss] to Malta on 8 March 1919, the country arose in its first modern revolution. The revolt led the UK government to issue a unilateral declaration of Egypt's independence on 22 February 1922.[50] British infantry near El Alamein, 17 July 1942 The new government drafted and implemented a constitution in 1923 based on a parliamentary system. Saad Zaghlul was popularly elected as Prime Minister of Egypt in 1924. In 1936, the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty was concluded. Continued instability due to remaining British influence and increasing political involvement by the king led to the dissolution of the parliament in a military coup d'état known as the 1952 Revolution. The Free Officers Movement forced King Farouk to abdicate in support of his son Fuad. British military presence in Egypt lasted until 1954.[51] Republic (1953–) Main article: History of the Republic of Egypt Following the 1952 Revolution by the Free Officers Movement, the rule of Egypt passed to military hands. On 18 June 1953, the Egyptian Republic was declared, with General Muhammad Naguib as the first President of the Republic. Reign of president Nasser (1956-1970) Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser in Mansoura, 1960 Naguib was forced to resign in 1954 by Gamal Abdel Nasser – the real architect of the 1952 movement – and was later put under house arrest. Nasser assumed power as President in June 1956. British forces completed their withdrawal from the occupied Suez Canal Zone on 13 June 1956. He nationalised the Suez Canal on 26 July 1956, prompting the 1956 Suez Crisis. In 1958, Egypt and Syria formed a sovereign union known as the United Arab Republic. The union was short-lived, ending in 1961 when Syria seceded, thus ending the union. During most of its existence, the United Arab Republic was also in a loose confederation with North Yemen (or the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen), known as the United Arab States. In 1959, the All-Palestine Government of the Gaza Strip, an Egyptian client state, was absorbed into the United Arab Republic under the pretext of Arab union, and was never restored. In early 1960s, Egypt became fully involved in the North Yemen Civil War. The Egyptian President, Gamal Abdel Nasser, supported the Yemeni republicans with as many as 70,000 Egyptian troops and chemical weapons. Despite several military moves and peace conferences, the war sank into a stalemate. Egyptian commitment in Yemen was greatly undermined later. In mid May 1967, the Soviet Union issued warnings to Nasser of an impending Israeli attack on Syria. Although the chief of staff Mohamed Fawzi verified them as "baseless",[52][53] Nasser took three successive steps that made the war virtually inevitable: On 14 May he deployed his troops in Sinai near the border with Israel, on 19 May he expelled the UN peacekeepers stationed in the Sinai Peninsula border with Israel, and on 23 May he closed the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping.[54] On 26 May Nasser declared, "The battle will be a general one and our basic objective will be to destroy Israel".[55] Israel re-iterated that the Straits of Tiran closure was a Casus belli. In the 1967 Six Day War, Israel attacked Egypt, and occupied Sinai Peninsula and the Gaza Strip, which Egypt had occupied since the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. During the 1967 war, an Emergency Law was enacted, and remained in effect until 2012, with the exception of an 18-month break in 1980/81.[56] Under this law, police powers were extended, constitutional rights suspended and censorship legalised.[citation needed] At the time of the fall of the Egyptian monarchy in the early 1950s, less than half a million Egyptians were considered upper class and rich, four million middle class and 17 million lower class and poor.[57] Fewer than half of all primary-school-age children attended school, most of them being boys. Nasser's policies changed this. Land reform and distribution, the dramatic growth in university education, and government support to national industries greatly improved social mobility and flattened the social curve. From academic year 1953-54 through 1965-66, overall public school enrolments more than doubled. Millions of previously poor Egyptians, through education and jobs in the public sector, joined the middle class. Doctors, engineers, teachers, lawyers, journalists, constituted the bulk of the swelling middle class in Egypt under Nasser.[57] During the 1960s, the Egyptian economy went from sluggish to the verge of collapse, the society became less free, and Nasser's appeal waned considerably.[58] Reign of president Sadat (1970-1981) Egyptian tanks advancing in the Sinai desert during the Yom Kippur War, 1973. In 1970, President Nasser died and was succeeded by Anwar Sadat. Sadat switched Egypt's Cold War allegiance from the Soviet Union to the United States, expelling Soviet advisors in 1972. He launched the Infitah economic reform policy, while clamping down on religious and secular opposition. In 1973, Egypt, along with Syria, launched the October War, a surprise attack to regain part of the Sinai territory Israel had captured 6 years earlier. it presented Sadat with a victory that allowed him to regain the Sinai later in return for peace with Israel.[59] Celebrating the signing of the 1978 Camp David Accords: Menachem Begin, Jimmy Carter, Anwar Al Sadat. In 1975, Sadat shifted Nasser's economic policies and sought to use his popularity to reduce government regulations and encourage foreign investment through his program of Infitah. Through this policy, incentives such as reduced taxes and import tariffs attracted some investors, but investments were mainly directed at low risk and profitable ventures like tourism and construction, abandoning Egypt's infant industries.[60] Even though Sadat's policy was intended to modernise Egypt and assist the middle class, it mainly benefited the higher class, and, because of the elimination of subsidies on basic foodstuffs, led to the 1977 Egyptian Bread Riots. Sadat made a historic visit to Israel in 1977, which led to the 1979 peace treaty in exchange for Israeli withdrawal from Sinai. Sadat's initiative sparked enormous controversy in the Arab world and led to Egypt's expulsion from the Arab League, but it was supported by most Egyptians.[61] Sadat was assassinated by an Islamic extremist in October 1981. Reign of president Mubarak (1981–2011) Hosni Mubarak came to power after the assassination of Sadat in a referendum in which he was the only candidate.[62] Egyptian President Anwar Al Sadat and Vice-President Hosni Mubarak in 1981, on the day of Sadat's assassination. Hosni Mubarak reaffirmed Egypt's relationship with Israel yet eased the tensions with Egypt's Arab neighbours. Domestically, Mubarak faced serious problems. Even though farm and industry output expanded, the economy could not keep pace with the population boom. Mass poverty and unemployment led rural families to stream into cities like Cairo where they ended up in crowded slums, barely managing to survive. In the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s, terrorist attacks in Egypt became numerous and severe, and began to target Christian Copts, foreign tourists and government officials.[63] In the 1990s an Islamist group, Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya, engaged in an extended campaign of violence, from the murders and attempted murders of prominent writers and intellectuals, to the repeated targeting of tourists and foreigners. Serious damage was done to the largest sector of Egypt's economy—tourism[64]—and in turn to the government, but it also devastated the livelihoods of many of the people on whom the group depended for support.[65] During Mubarak's reign, the political scene was dominated by the National Democratic Party, which was created by Sadat in 1978. It passed the 1993 Syndicates Law, 1995 Press Law, and 1999 Nongovernmental Associations Law which hampered freedoms of association and expression by imposing new regulations and draconian penalties on violations.[citation needed] As a result, by the late 1990s parliamentary politics had become virtually irrelevant and alternative avenues for political expression were curtailed as well.[66] Cairo grew into a metropolitan area with a population of over 20 million On 17 November 1997, 62 people, mostly tourists, were massacred near Luxor. In late February 2005, Mubarak announced a reform of the presidential election law, paving the way for multi-candidate polls for the first time since the 1952 movement.[67] However, the new law placed restrictions on the candidates, and led to Mubarak's easy re-election victory.[68] Voter turnout was less than 25%.[69] Election observers also alleged government interference in the election process.[70] After the election, Mubarak imprisoned Ayman Nour, the runner-up.[71] Human Rights Watch's 2006 report on Egypt detailed serious human rights violations, including routine torture, arbitrary detentions and trials before military and state security courts.[72] In 2007, Amnesty International released a report alleging that Egypt had become an international centre for torture, where other nations send suspects for interrogation, often as part of the War on Terror.[73] Egypt's foreign ministry quickly issued a rebuttal to this report.[74] Constitutional changes voted on 19 March 2007 prohibited parties from using religion as a basis for political activity, allowed the drafting of a new anti-terrorism law, authorised broad police powers of arrest and surveillance, and gave the president power to dissolve parliament and end judicial election monitoring.[75] In 2009, Dr. Ali El Deen Hilal Dessouki, Media Secretary of the National Democratic Party (NDP), described Egypt as a "pharaonic" political system, and democracy as a "long-term goal". Dessouki also stated that "the real center of power in Egypt is the military".[76] Revolution Main article: Egyptian Crisis (2011–14) Celebrations in Tahrir Square after Omar Suleiman's statement announcing Hosni Mubarak's resignation On 25 January 2011, widespread protests began against Mubarak's government. On 11 February 2011, Mubarak resigned and fled Cairo. Jubilant celebrations broke out in Cairo's Tahrir Square at the news.[77] The Egyptian military then assumed the power to govern.[78][79] Mohamed Hussein Tantawi, chairman of the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces, became the de facto interim head of state.[80][81] On 13 February 2011, the military dissolved the parliament and suspended the constitution.[82] A constitutional referendum was held on 19 March 2011. On 28 November 2011, Egypt held its first parliamentary election since the previous regime had been in power. Turnout was high and there were no reports of major irregularities or violence.[83] Mohamed Morsi was elected president on 24 June 2012.[84] On 2 August 2012, Egypt's Prime Minister Hisham Qandil announced his 35-member cabinet comprising 28 newcomers including four from the Muslim Brotherhood.[85] Liberal and secular groups walked out of the constituent assembly because they believed that it would impose strict Islamic practices, while Muslim Brotherhood backers threw their support behind Morsi.[86] On 22 November 2012, President Morsi issued a temporary declaration immunising his decrees from challenge and seeking to protect the work of the constituent assembly.[87] The move led to massive protests and violent action throughout Egypt.[88] On 5 December 2012, tens of thousands of supporters and opponents of president Morsi clashed, in what was described as the largest violent battle between Islamists and their foes since the country's revolution.[89] Mohamed Morsi offered a "national dialogue" with opposition leaders but refused to cancel the December 2012 constitutional referendum.[90] Tahrir Square against President Morsi on 27 November 2012. Rabaa al-Adawiya Square packed with pro-Morsi supporters. Coup d'état On 3 July 2013, the military removed President Morsi from power in a coup d'état and installed an interim government.[91] The move came 3 days after mass protests were organised across Egypt for and against Morsi's rule. On 4 July 2013, 68-year-old Chief Justice of the Supreme Constitutional Court of Egypt Adly Mansour was sworn in as acting president over the new government following the removal of Morsi. The military-backed Egyptian authorities cracked down on the Muslim Brotherhood and its supporters, jailing thousands and killing hundreds of street protesters.[92][93] Many of the Muslim Brotherhood leaders and activists have either been sentenced to death or life imprisonment in a series of mass trials.[94][95][96] On 18 January 2014, the interim government instituted a new constitution following a referendum in which 98.1% of voters were supportive. Participation was low with only 38.6% of registered voters participating[97] although this was higher than the 33% who voted in a referendum during Morsi's tenure.[98] On 26 March 2014 Abdel Fattah el-Sisi the head of the Egyptian Armed Forces, who at this time was in control of the country, resigned from the military, announcing he would stand as a candidate in the 2014 presidential election.[99] The poll, held between 26 and 28 May 2014, resulted in a landslide victory for el-Sisi.[100] Sisi sworn into office as President of Egypt on 8 June 2014. The Muslim Brotherhood and some liberal and secular activist groups boycotted the vote.[101] Even though the military-backed authorities extended voting to a third day, the 46% turnout was lower than the 52% turnout in the 2012 election.[102] Geography Main article: Geography of Egypt A map of Egypt. A branch of the Nile near Aswan. Egypt lies primarily between latitudes 22° and 32°N, and longitudes 25° and 35°E. At 1,001,450 square kilometres (386,660 sq mi),[103] it is the world's 30th-largest country. Due to the extreme aridity of Egypt's climate, population centres are concentrated along the narrow Nile Valley and Delta, meaning that about 99% of the population uses about 5.5% of the total land area.[104] 98% of Egyptians live on 3% of the territory.[105] Egypt is bordered by Libya to the west, the Sudan to the south, and the Gaza Strip and Israel to the east. Egypt's important role in geopolitics stems from its strategic position: a transcontinental nation, it possesses a land bridge (the Isthmus of Suez) between Africa and Asia, traversed by a navigable waterway (the Suez Canal) that connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Indian Ocean by way of the Red Sea. Apart from the Nile Valley, the majority of Egypt's landscape is desert, with a few oases scattered about. Winds create prolific sand dunes that peak at more than 100 feet (30 m) high. Egypt includes parts of the Sahara desert and of the Libyan Desert. These deserts protected the Kingdom of the Pharaohs from western threats and were referred to as the "red land" in ancient Egypt. Towns and cities include Alexandria, the second largest city; Aswan; Asyut; Cairo, the modern Egyptian capital and largest city; El-Mahalla El-Kubra; Giza, the site of the Pyramid of Khufu; Hurghada; Luxor; Kom Ombo; Port Safaga; Port Said; Sharm el Sheikh; Suez, where the south end of the Suez Canal is located; Zagazig; and Al-Minya. Oases include Bahariya, el Dakhla, Farafra, el Kharga and Siwa. Protectorates include Ras Mohamed National Park, Zaranik Protectorate and Siwa. On 13 March 2015, plans for a proposed new capital of Egypt were announced.[106] Climate Main article: Climate of Egypt Saint Catherine in Egypt's southern Sinai Peninsula, on a snowy winter morning. Most of Egypt's rain falls in the winter months.[107] South of Cairo, rainfall averages only around 2 to 5 mm (0.1 to 0.2 in) per year and at intervals of many years. On a very thin strip of the northern coast the rainfall can be as high as 410 mm (16.1 in),[108] mostly between October and March. Snow falls on Sinai's mountains and some of the north coastal cities such as Damietta, Baltim, Sidi Barrany, etc. and rarely in Alexandria. A very small amount of snow fell on Cairo on 13 December 2013, the first time Cairo received snowfall in many decades.[109] Frost is also known in mid-Sinai and mid-Egypt. Egypt is the driest and the sunniest country in the world, and most of its land surface is desert. The Qattara depression in Egypt's north west. Egypt has an unusually hot, sunny and dry climate. Average high temperatures are high in the north but very to extremely high in the rest of the country during summer. The cooler Mediterranean winds consistently blow over the northern sea coast, which helps to get more moderated temperatures, especially at the height of the summertime. The Khamaseen is a hot, dry wind that originates from the vast deserts in the south and blows in the spring or in the early summer. It bringing scorching sand and dust particles, and usually brings daytime temperatures over 40 °C (104 °F) and sometimes over 50 °C (122 °F) more in the interior, while the relative humidity can drop to 5% or even less. The absolute highest temperatures in Egypt occur when the Khamaseen blows. The weather is always sunny and clear in Egypt, especially in cities such as Aswan, Luxor, Sohag and Asyut. In fact, this is one of the least cloudy and the least rainy regions on Earth. Prior to the construction of the Aswan Dam, the Nile flooded annually (colloquially The Gift of the Nile) replenishing Egypt's soil. This gave Egypt a consistent harvest throughout the years. The potential rise in sea levels due to global warming could threaten Egypt's densely populated coastal strip and have grave consequences for the country's economy, agriculture and industry. Combined with growing demographic pressures, a significant rise in sea levels could turn millions of Egyptians into environmental refugees by the end of the 21st century, according to some climate experts.[110][111] Biodiversity Egypt signed the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity on 9 June 1992, and became a party to the convention on 2 June 1994.[112] It has subsequently produced a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, which was received by the convention on 31 July 1998.[113] Where many CBD National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plans neglect biological kingdoms apart from animals and plants,[114] Egypt's plan was unusual in providing balanced information about all forms of life. The plan stated that the following numbers of species of different groups had been recorded from Egypt: algae (1483 species), animals (about 15,000 species of which more than 10,000 were insects), fungi (more than 627 species), monera (319 species), plants (2426 species), protozoans (371 species). For some major groups, for example lichen-forming fungi and nematode worms, the number was not known. Apart from small and well-studied groups like amphibians, birds, fish, mammals and reptiles, the many of those numbers are likely to increase as further species are recorded from Egypt. For the fungi, including lichen-forming species, for example, subsequent work has shown that over 2200 species have been recorded from Egypt, and the final figure of all fungi actually occurring in the country is expected to be much higher.[115] Government Main article: Politics of Egypt General Sisi deposed President Morsi from power after June 30 Revolution. Mohamed Morsi was the first democratically elected head of state in Egyptian history. The House of Representatives, whose members are elected to serve five-year terms, specialises in legislation. Elections were last held between November 2011 and January 2012 which was later dissolved. The next parliamentary election will be held within 6 months of the constitution's ratification on 18 January 2014. Originally, the parliament was to be formed before the president was elected, but interim president Adly Mansour pushed the date.[116] The Egyptian presidential election, 2014, took place on 26–28 May 2014. Official figures showed a turnout of 25,578,233 or 47.5%, with Abdel Fattah el-Sisi winning with 23.78 million votes, or 96.91% compared to 757,511 (3.09%) for Hamdeen Sabahi.[117] On 3 July 2013, General Abdul Fatah Al-Sisi announced the removal of President Mohamed Morsi from office and the suspension of the constitution. A 50-member constitution committee was formed for modifying the constitution which was later published for public voting and was adopted on 18 January 2014.[118] In 2013, Freedom House rated political rights in Egypt at "5" (with 1 representing the most free and 7 the least), and civil liberties at "5", which gave it the freedom rating of "Partly Free".[119] Egyptian nationalism predates its Arab counterpart by many decades, having roots in the 19th century and becoming the dominant mode of expression of Egyptian anti-colonial activists and intellectuals until the early 20th century.[120] The ideology espoused by Islamists such as the Muslim Brotherhood is mostly supported by the lower-middle strata of Egyptian society.[121] Egypt has the oldest continuous parliamentary tradition in the Arab world.[122] The first popular assembly was established in 1866. It was disbanded as a result of the British occupation of 1882, and the British allowed only a consultative body to sit. In 1923, however, after the country's independence was declared, a new constitution provided for a parliamentary monarchy.[122] Law Recentism.svg This section may be slanted towards recent events. Please try to keep recent events in historical perspective. (June 2015) Main article: Law of Egypt Supreme Constitutional Court of Egypt The legal system is based on Islamic and civil law (particularly Napoleonic codes); and judicial review by a Supreme Court, which accepts compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction only with reservations.[51] Islamic jurisprudence is the principal source of legislation. Sharia courts and qadis are run and licensed by the Ministry of Justice.[123] The personal status law that regulates matters such as marriage, divorce and child custody is governed by Sharia. In a family court, a woman's testimony is worth half of a man's testimony.[124] On 26 December 2012, the Muslim Brotherhood attempted to institutionalise a controversial new constitution. It was approved by the public in a referendum held 15–22 December 2012 with 64% support, but with only 33% electorate participation.[125] It replaced the 2011 Provisional Constitution of Egypt, adopted following the revolution. The Penal code was unique as it contains a "Blasphemy Law."[126] The present court system allows a death penalty including against an absent individual tried in absentia. Several Americans and Canadians were sentenced to death in 2012.[127] On 18 January 2014, the interim government successfully institutionalised a more secular constitution.[128] The president is elected to a four-year term and may serve 2 terms.[128] The parliament may impeach the president.[128] Under the constitution, there is a guarantee of gender equality and absolute freedom of thought.[128] The military retains the ability to appoint the national Minister of Defence for the next 8 years.[128] Under the constitution, political parties may not be based on "religion, race, gender or geography".[128] Human rights Recentism.svg This section may be slanted towards recent events. Please try to keep recent events in historical perspective. (June 2015) Main article: Human rights in Egypt See also: Sudanese refugees in Egypt, August 2013 Rabaa Massacre and Persecution of Copts The Egyptian Organization for Human Rights is one of the longest-standing bodies for the defence of human rights in Egypt.[129] In 2003, the government established the National Council for Human Rights.[130] The council came under heavy criticism by local activists, who contend it was a propaganda tool for the government to excuse its own violations[131] and to give legitimacy to repressive laws such as the Emergency Law.[132] Protesters from the Third Square movement: "Neither Morsi nor the military", 31 July 2013 The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life ranks Egypt as the fifth worst country in the world for religious freedom.[133][134] The United States Commission on International Religious Freedom, a bipartisan independent agency of the US government, has placed Egypt on its watch list of countries that require close monitoring due to the nature and extent of violations of religious freedom engaged in or tolerated by the government.[135] According to a 2010 Pew Global Attitudes survey, 84% of Egyptians polled supported the death penalty for those who leave Islam; 77% supported whippings and cutting off of hands for theft and robbery; and 82% support stoning a person who commits adultery.[136] Coptic Christians face discrimination at multiple levels of the government, ranging from disproportionate representation in government ministries to laws that limit their ability to build or repair churches.[137] Intolerance of Bahá'ís and non-orthodox Muslim sects, such as Sufis, Shi'a and Ahmadis, also remains a problem.[72] When the government moved to computerise identification cards, members of religious minorities, such as Bahá'ís, could not obtain identification documents.[138] An Egyptian court ruled in early 2008 that members of other faiths may obtain identity cards without listing their faiths, and without becoming officially recognised.[139] Clashes continue between police and supporters of former President Mohamed Morsi, at least 595 civilians were killed in Cairo on 14 August 2013,[140] the worst mass killing in Egypt's modern history.[141] Egypt actively practices capital punishment. Egypt's authorities do not release figures on death sentences and executions, despite repeated requests over the years by human rights organisations.[142] The United Nations human rights office[143] and various NGOs[142][144] expressed "deep alarm" after an Egyptian Minya Criminal Court sentenced 529 people to death in a single hearing on 25 March 2014. Sentenced supporters of former President Mohamed Morsi will be executed for their alleged role in violence following his ousting in July 2013. The judgment was condemned as a violation of international law.[145] By May 2014, approximately 16,000 people (and as high as more than 40,000 by one independent count),[146] mostly Brotherhood members or supporters, have been imprisoned after the coup [147] after the Muslim Brotherhood was labelled as terrorist organisation by the post-coup interim Egyptian government.[148] After Morsi was ousted by the military, the judiciary system aligned itself with the new government, actively suopporting the repression of Muslim Brotherhood members. This resulted in a sharp increase in mass death sentences that arose criticism from the US president Barack Obama and the General Secretary of the UN, Ban Ki Moon. In April 2013, one judge of the Minya governatorate of Upper Egypt, sentenced 1,212 people to death. In December 2014 the judge Mohammed Nagi Shahata, notorious for his fierceness in passing on death sentences, condemened to the capital penalty 188 members of the Muslim Brotherhood, for assaulting a police station. Various Egyptian and international human rights organisations have already pointed out the lack of fair trials, that often last only a few minutes and do not take into consideration the procedural standards of fair trials.[149] Freedom of the press Reporters Without Borders ranked Egypt in their World Press Freedom Index as #158 out of 180. At least 18 journalists were imprisoned in Egypt in August 2015. A new anti-terror law was enacted in August 2015 that threatens members of the media with fines ranging from about US$25,000 to 60,000 for the distribution of wrong information on acts of terror inside the country "that differ from official declarations of the Egyptian Department of Defense".[150] Military and foreign relations Main articles: Egyptian Armed Forces and Foreign relations of Egypt The military is influential in the political and economic life of Egypt and exempts itself from laws that apply to other sectors. It enjoys considerable power, prestige and independence within the state and has been widely considered part of the Egyptian "deep state".[62][151][152] Egyptian soldiers carrying flags of the main branches of the armed forces According to the former chair of Israel's Knesset Foreign Affairs and Defense Committee, Yuval Steinitz, the Egyptian Air Force has roughly the same number of modern warplanes as the Israeli Air Force and far more Western tanks, artillery, anti-aircraft batteries and warships than the IDF.[153] Egypt is speculated by Israel to be the second country in the region with a spy satellite, EgyptSat 1[154] in addition to EgyptSat 2 launched on 16 April 2014.[155] The United States provides Egypt with annual military assistance, which in 2015 amounted to US$1.3 billion.[156] In 1989, Egypt was designated as a major non-NATO ally of the United States.[157] Nevertheless, ties between the two countries have partially soured since the July 2013 military coup that deposed Islamist president Mohamed Morsi,[158] with the Obama administration condemning Egypt's violent crackdown on the Muslim Brotherhood and its supporters, and cancelling future military exercises involving the two countries.[159] There have been recent attempts, however, to normalise relations between the two, with both governments frequently calling for mutual support in the fight against regional and international terrorism.[160][161][162] Top: Former President Hosni Mubarak with US President George W. Bush at Camp David in 2002; Bottom: President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi and Russian President Vladimir Putin in Sochi, August 2014. The Egyptian military has dozens of factories manufacturing weapons as well as consumer goods. The Armed Forces' inventory includes equipment from different countries around the world. Equipment from the former Soviet Union is being progressively replaced by more modern US, French, and British equipment, a significant portion of which is built under license in Egypt, such as the M1 Abrams tank.[citation needed] Relations with Russia have improved significantly following Mohamed Morsi's removal[163] and both countries have worked since then to strengthen military[164] and trade ties[165] among other aspects of bilateral co-operation. Relations with China have also improved considerably. In 2014, Egypt and China have established a bilateral "comprehensive strategic partnership".[166] The permanent headquarters of the Arab League are located in Cairo and the body's secretary general has traditionally been Egyptian. This position is currently held by former foreign minister Nabil el-Araby. The Arab League briefly moved from Egypt to Tunis in 1978 to protest the Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty, but it later returned to Cairo in 1989. Gulf monarchies, including the United Arab Emirates[167] and Saudi Arabia,[168] have pledged billions of dollars to help Egypt overcome its economic difficulties since the July 2013 coup.[169] Following the 1973 war and the subsequent peace treaty, Egypt became the first Arab nation to establish diplomatic relations with Israel. Despite that, Israel is still widely considered as a hostile state by the majority of Egyptians.[170] Egypt has played a historical role as a mediator in resolving various disputes in the Middle East, most notably its handling of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and the peace process.[171] Egypt's ceasefire and truce brokering efforts in Gaza have hardly been challenged following Israel's evacuation of its settlements from the strip in 2005, despite increasing animosity towards the Hamas government in Gaza following the ouster of Mohamed Morsi,[172] and despite recent attempts by countries like Turkey and Qatar to take over this role.[173] Ties between Egypt and other non-Arab Middle Eastern nations, including Iran and Turkey, have often been strained. Tensions with Iran are mostly due to Egypt's peace treaty with Israel and its rivalry with traditional Egyptian allies in the Gulf.[174] Turkey's recent support for the now-banned Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt and its alleged involvement in Libya also made of both countries bitter regional rivals.[175][176] Egypt is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement and the United Nations. It is also a member of the Organisation internationale de la francophonie, since 1983. Former Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister Boutros Boutros-Ghali served as Secretary-General of the United Nations from 1991 to 1996. In the 21st century, Egypt has had a major problem with immigration, as millions of persons from other African nations flee poverty and war. Border control methods can be "harsh, sometimes lethal."[177] Administrative divisions Main articles: Governorates of Egypt and Regions of Egypt Governorates of Egypt Egypt is divided into 27 governorates. The governorates are further divided into regions. The regions contain towns and villages. Each governorate has a capital, sometimes carrying the same name as the governorate. Matrouh Alexandria Beheira Kafr el-Sheikh Dakahlia Damietta Port Said North Sinai Gharbia Monufia Qalyubia Al Sharqia Ismailia Giza Faiyum Cairo Suez South Sinai Beni Suef Minya New Valley Asyut Red Sea Sohag Qena Luxor Aswan Economy Main article: Economy of Egypt A proportional representation of Egypt's exports. Egypt's economy depends mainly on agriculture, media, petroleum imports, natural gas, and tourism; there are also more than three million Egyptians working abroad, mainly in Saudi Arabia, the Persian Gulf and Europe. The completion of the Aswan High Dam in 1970 and the resultant Lake Nasser have altered the time-honored place of the Nile River in the agriculture and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly growing population, limited arable land, and dependence on the Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress the economy.[178] The government has invested in communications and physical infrastructure. Egypt has received United States foreign aid since 1979 (an average of $2.2 billion per year) and is the third-largest recipient of such funds from the United States following the Iraq war. Egypt's economy mainly relies on these sources of income: tourism, remittances from Egyptians working abroad and revenues from the Suez Canal.[179] Egypt has a developed energy market based on coal, oil, natural gas, and hydro power. Substantial coal deposits in the northeast Sinai are mined at the rate of about 600,000 tonnes (590,000 long tons; 660,000 short tons) per year. Oil and gas are produced in the western desert regions, the Gulf of Suez, and the Nile Delta. Egypt has huge reserves of gas, estimated at 2,180 cubic kilometres (520 cu mi),[180] and LNG up to 2012 exported to many countries. In 2013, the Egyptian General Petroleum Co (EGPC) said the country will cut exports of natural gas and tell major industries to slow output this summer to avoid an energy crisis and stave off political unrest, Reuters has reported. Egypt is counting on top liquid natural gas (LNG) exporter Qatar to obtain additional gas volumes in summer, while encouraging factories to plan their annual maintenance for those months of peak demand, said EGPC chairman, Tarek El Barkatawy. Egypt produces its own energy, but has been a net oil importer since 2008 and is rapidly becoming a net importer of natural gas.[181] San Stefano Grand Plaza in Alexandria (left) and view from Cairo. Economic conditions have started to improve considerably, after a period of stagnation, due to the adoption of more liberal economic policies by the government as well as increased revenues from tourism and a booming stock market. In its annual report, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) has rated Egypt as one of the top countries in the world undertaking economic reforms.[182] Some major economic reforms undertaken by the government since 2003 include a dramatic slashing of customs and tariffs. A new taxation law implemented in 2005 decreased corporate taxes from 40% to the current 20%, resulting in a stated 100% increase in tax revenue by the year 2006. Foreign direct investment (FDI) in Egypt increased considerably before the removal of Hosni Mubarak, exceeding $6 billion in 2006, due to economic liberalisation and privatisation measures taken by minister of investment Mahmoud Mohieddin.[citation needed] Since the fall of Hosni Mubarak in 2011, Egypt has experienced a drastic fall in both foreign investment and tourism revenues, followed by a 60% drop in foreign exchange reserves, a 3% drop in growth, and a rapid devaluation of the Egyptian pound.[183] Although one of the main obstacles still facing the Egyptian economy is the limited trickle down of wealth to the average population, many Egyptians criticise their government for higher prices of basic goods while their standards of living or purchasing power remains relatively stagnant. Corruption is often cited by Egyptians as the main impediment to further economic growth.[184][185] The government promised major reconstruction of the country's infrastructure, using money paid for the newly acquired third mobile license ($3 billion) by Etisalat in 2006.[186] In the Corruption Perceptions Index 2013, Egypt was ranked 114 out of 177.[187] The Suez Canal. Egypt's most prominent multinational companies are the Orascom Group and Raya Contact Center. The information technology (IT) sector has expanded rapidly in the past few years, with many start-ups selling outsourcing services to North America and Europe, operating with companies such as Microsoft, Oracle and other major corporations, as well as many small and medium size enterprises. Some of these companies are the Xceed Contact Center, Raya, E Group Connections and C3. The IT sector has been stimulated by new Egyptian entrepreneurs with government encouragement.[citation needed] An estimated 2.7 million Egyptians abroad contribute actively to the development of their country through remittances (US$7.8 billion in 2009), as well as circulation of human and social capital and investment.[188] Remittances, money earned by Egyptians living abroad and sent home, reached a record US$21 billion in 2012, according to the World Bank.[189] Egyptian society is moderately unequal in terms of income distribution, with an estimated 35 - 40% of Egypt's population earning less than the equivalent of $2 a day, while only around 2–3% may be considered wealthy.[190] Tourism Al Muizz Street has the greatest concentration of medieval architectural treasures in the Islamic world. The Pyramid of Menkaure. Tourism is one of the most important sectors in Egypt's economy. More than 12.8 million tourists visited Egypt in 2008, providing revenues of nearly $11 billion. The tourism sector employs about 12% of Egypt's workforce.[191] Tourism Minister Hisham Zaazou told industry professionals and reporters that tourism generated some $9.4 billion in 2012, a slight increase over the $9 billion seen in 2011.[192] White Knight Bay, Sharm el Sheikh The Giza Necropolis is Egypt's most iconic site. It is also Egypt's most popular tourist destination since antiquity, and was popularised in Hellenistic times when the Great Pyramid was listed by Antipater of Sidon as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Today it is the only one of those wonders still in existence. Egypt has a wide range of beaches situated on the Mediterreanean and the Red Sea that extend to over 3,000 km. The Red Sea has serene waters, coloured coral reefs, rare fish and beautiful mountains. The Akba Gulf beaches also provide facilities for practising sea sports. Safaga tops the Red Sea zone with its beautiful location on the Suez Gulf. Last but not least, Sharm el-Sheikh (or City of Peace), Hurghada, Luxor (known as world's greatest open-air museum/ or City of the 1/3 of world monuments), Dahab, Ras Sidr, Marsa Alam, Safaga and the northern coast of the Mediterranean are major tourist's destinations of the recreational tourism. With a lot of touristic activities in Egypt it's considered a fun place for historical, religious, medical and entertainment tourism. To enter Egypt, it is necessary to have a valid passport and in most cases a visa.[193] Energy Main article: Energy in Egypt Oil refinery at lake Mariout Egypt was producing 691,000 bbl/d of oil and 2,141.05 Tcf of natural gas (in 2013), which makes Egypt as the largest oil producer not member of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and the second-largest dry natural gas producer in Africa. In 2013, Egypt was the largest consumer of oil and natural gas in Africa, as more than 20% of total oil consumption and more than 40% of total dry natural gas consumption in Africa. Also, Egypt possesses the largest oil refinery capacity in Africa 726,000 bbl/d (in 2012).[180] Egypt is currently planning to build its first nuclear power plant in El Dabaa city, northern Egypt.[194][195][196] Transport Main article: Transport in Egypt Transport in Egypt is centred around Cairo and largely follows the pattern of settlement along the Nile. The main line of the nation's 40,800-kilometer (25,400 mi) railway network runs from Alexandria to Aswan and is operated by Egyptian National Railways. The vehicle road network has expanded rapidly to over 21,000 miles, consisting of 28 line, 796 stations, 1800 train covering the Nile Valley and Nile Delta, the Mediterranean and Red Sea coasts, the Sinai, and the Western oases. The Cairo Metro (line 2) The Cairo Metro in Egypt is the first of only two full-fledged metro systems in Africa and the Arab World. It is considered one of the most important recent projects in Egypt which cost around 12 billion Egyptian pounds. The system consists of three operational lines with a fourth line expected in the future. Egypt is considered one of the pioneer countries in using air transport having established its most important and main flag carrier airline of Egypt, EgyptAir in 1932, 100% owned by the Egyptian Government. The airline is based at Cairo International Airport, its main hub, operating scheduled passenger and freight services to more than 75 destinations in the Middle East, Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas. The Current EgyptAir fleet includes 80 aeroplane. Suez Canal Main article: Suez Canal The Suez Canal Bridge. The Suez Canal is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt considered the most important centre of the maritime transport in the Middle East, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Opened in November 1869 after 10 years of construction work, it allows ship transport between Europe and Asia without navigation around Africa. The northern terminus is Port Said and the southern terminus is Port Tawfiq at the city of Suez. Ismailia lies on its west bank, 3 km (1.9 mi) from the half-way point. The canal is 193.30 km (120.11 mi) long, 24 m (79 ft) deep and 205 metres (673 ft) wide as of 2010. It consists of the northern access channel of 22 km (14 mi), the canal itself of 162.25 km (100.82 mi) and the southern access channel of 9 km (5.6 mi). The canal is a single lane with passing places in the "Ballah By-Pass" and the Great Bitter Lake. It contains no locks; seawater flows freely through the canal. In general, the canal north of the Bitter Lakes flows north in winter and south in summer. The current south of the lakes changes with the tide at Suez. On 26 August 2014 a proposal was made for opening a New Suez Canal. Work on the New Suez Canal was completed in July 2015.[197][198] The channel was officially inaugurated with a ceremony attended by foreign leaders and featuring military flyovers on 6 August 2015, in accordance with the budgets laid out for the project.[199][200] Water supply and sanitation Main article: Water supply and sanitation in Egypt Drinking water supply and sanitation in Egypt is characterised by both achievements and challenges. Among the achievements are an increase of piped water supply between 1990 and 2010 from 89% to 100% in urban areas and from 39% to 93% in rural areas despite rapid population growth, the elimination of open defecation in rural areas during the same period, and in general a relatively high level of investment in infrastructure. Access to an improved water source in Egypt is now practically universal with a rate of 99%. About one half of the population is connected to sanitary sewers.[201] Partly because of low sanitation coverage about 17,000 children die each year because of diarrhoea.[202] Another challenge is low cost recovery due to water tariffs that are among the lowest in the world. This in turn requires government subsidies even for operating costs, a situation that has been aggravated by salary increases without tariff increases after the Arab Spring. Poor operation of facilities, such as water and wastewater treatment plants, as well as limited government accountability and transparency, are also issues. Demographics Main articles: Demographics of Egypt and Egyptians Egypt's population density (people per km2). Historical populations in thousands Year Pop. ±% p.a. 1882 6,712 — 1897 9,669 +2.46% 1907 11,190 +1.47% 1917 12,718 +1.29% 1927 14,178 +1.09% 1937 15,921 +1.17% 1947 18,967 +1.77% 1960 26,085 +2.48% 1966 30,076 +2.40% 1976 36,626 +1.99% 1986 48,254 +2.80% 1996 59,312 +2.08% 2006 72,798 +2.07% 2013 84,314 +2.12% Source: Population in Egypt[6] Egypt is the most populated country in the Middle East, and the third most populous on the African continent, with about 88 million inhabitants as of 2015.[5] Its population grew rapidly from 1970 to 2010 due to medical advances and increases in agricultural productivity [203] enabled by the Green Revolution.[204] Egypt's population was estimated at 3 million when Napoleon invaded the country in 1798.[205] Egypt's people are highly urbanised, being concentrated along the Nile (notably Cairo and Alexandria), in the Delta and near the Suez Canal. Egyptians are divided demographically into those who live in the major urban centres and the fellahin, or farmers, that reside in rural villages. An estimated 2.7 million Egyptians live abroad. Approximately 70% of Egyptian migrants live in Arab countries (923,600 in Saudi Arabia, 332,600 in Libya, 226,850 in Jordan, 190,550 in Kuwait with the rest elsewhere in the region) and the remaining 30% reside mostly in Europe and North America (318,000 in the United States, 110,000 in Canada and 90,000 in Italy).[188] Among the people of the ancient Near East, only the Egyptians have stayed where they were and remained what they were[citation needed], although they have changed their language once and their religion twice. In a sense, they constitute the world's oldest nation[citation needed]. For most of their history, Egypt has been a state, but only in recent years has it been truly a nation-state, with a government claiming the allegiance of its subjects on the basis of a common identity.[citation needed] Ethnic groups Ethnic Egyptians are by far the largest ethnic group in the country, constituting 91% of the total population.[51] Ethnic minorities include the Abazas, Turks, Greeks, Bedouin Arab tribes living in the eastern deserts and the Sinai Peninsula, the Berber-speaking Siwis (Amazigh) of the Siwa Oasis, and the Nubian communities clustered along the Nile. There are also tribal Beja communities concentrated in the south-eastern-most corner of the country, and a number of Dom clans mostly in the Nile Delta and Faiyum who are progressively becoming assimilated as urbanisation increases. Egypt also hosts an unknown number of refugees and asylum seekers, estimated to be between 500,000 and 3 million.[206] There are some 70,000 Palestinian refugees,[206] and about 150,000 recently arrived Iraqi refugees,[207] but the number of the largest group, the Sudanese, is contested.[nb 1] The once-vibrant and ancient Greek and Jewish communities in Egypt have almost disappeared, with only a small number remaining in the country, but many Egyptian Jews visit on religious or other occasions and tourism. Several important Jewish archaeological and historical sites are found in Cairo, Alexandria and other cities. Languages Main article: Languages of Egypt The official language of the Republic is Modern Standard Arabic.[11] Arabic was adopted by the Egyptians after the Arab invasion of Egypt.[208] The spoken languages are: Egyptian Arabic (68%), Sa'idi Arabic (29%), Eastern Egyptian Bedawi Arabic (1.6%), Sudanese Arabic (0.6%), Domari (0.3%), Nobiin (0.3%), Beja (0.1%), Siwi and others. Additionally, Greek, Armenian and Italian are the main languages of immigrants. In Alexandria in the 19th century there was a large community of Italian Egyptians and Italian was the "lingua franca" of the city. The main foreign languages taught in schools, by order of popularity, are English, French, German and Italian. Historical Egyptian languages, also known as Copto-Egyptian, consist of ancient Egyptian and Coptic, and form a separate branch among the family of Afroasiatic languages. The "Koiné" dialect of the Greek language, though not native to Egypt, was important in Hellenistic Alexandria. It was used extensively in the philosophy and science of that culture. Later translations from Greek to Arabic became the subject of study by Arab scholars. Religion Main article: Religion in Egypt Religions in Egypt (Pew Research)[209][210] Religions Percent Muslim ? 90% Orthodox Christian Title Films September 17, 2004 Wimbledon September 24, 2004 Shaun of the Dead co-production with Rogue Pictures, StudioCanal, Film4 Productions, and Working Title Films; Rogue Pictures handled U.S. distribution while Universal distributed it in countries outside the USA October 8, 2004 Friday Night Lights co-production with Imagine Entertainment October 29, 2004 Ray co-production with Bristol Bay Productions November 19, 2004 Bridget Jones: The Edge of Reason USA distribution only, co-production with Miramax Films December 22, 2004 Meet the Fockers USA distribution only, co-production with DreamWorks December 29, 2004 In Good Company January 7, 2005 White Noise co-production with Gold Circle Films February 4, 2005 The Wedding Date co-production with Gold Circle Films February 11, 2005 Inside Deep Throat distribution only in USA April 22, 2005 The Interpreter co-production with Working Title Films May 13, 2005 Kicking & Screaming June 3, 2005 Cinderella Man USA distribution only, co-production with Miramax Films and Imagine Entertainment June 17, 2005 The Perfect Man June 24, 2005 Land of the Dead co-production with Wild Bunch August 12, 2005 The Skeleton Key August 19, 2005 The 40-Year-Old Virgin co-production with Apatow Productions September 30, 2005 Serenity October 7, 2005 Two for the Money distribution only; with Morgan Creek Productions October 21, 2005 Doom co-production with DiBonaventura Productions October 28, 2005 Prime November 4, 2005 Jarhead November 23, 2005 Pride & Prejudice distributed in countries outside USA; co-production with StudioCanal and Working Title Films December 2, 2005 First Descent distribution only in USA December 14, 2005 King Kong co-production with WingNut Films December 23, 2005 Munich USA distribution only, co-production with DreamWorks, Amblin Entertainment and Alliance Atlantis Communications December 25, 2005 The Producers North American distribution only, co-production with Columbia Pictures January 27, 2006 Nanny McPhee USA distribution only, co-production with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Pictures,[1] StudioCanal and Working Title Films February 10, 2006 Curious George co-production with Imagine Entertainment and Universal Animation Studios March 23, 2006 Inside Man co-production with Imagine Entertainment March 31, 2006 Slither co-production with Gold Circle Films April 21, 2006 American Dreamz April 28, 2006 United 93 co-production with StudioCanal and Working Title Films June 2, 2006 The Break-Up June 16, 2006 The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift co-production with Original Film and Relativity Media; first film teamed up with Relativity Media July 14, 2006 You, Me and Dupree July 28, 2006 Miami Vice August 18, 2006 Accepted co-production with Shady Acres Entertainment August 25, 2006 Idlewild September 15, 2006 The Black Dahlia October 13, 2006 Man of the Year co-production with Morgan Creek Productions November 17, 2006 Let's Go to Prison distribution only; produced by Carsey Werner Films); (co-production with Strike Entertainment) December 8, 2006 The Holiday international distribution only, co-production with Columbia Pictures, Relativity Media and Waverly Films December 22, 2006 The Good Shepherd co-production with Morgan Creek Productions and American Zoetrope December 25, 2006 Children of Men co-production with Strike Entertainment January 12, 2007 Alpha Dog USA distribution only January 26, 2007 Smokin' Aces co-production with StudioCanal, Relativity Media and Working Title Films February 2, 2007 Because I Said So February 16, 2007 Breach March 16, 2007 Dead Silence co-production with Twisted Pictures April 20, 2007 Hot Fuzz distribution in most countries outside of the USA May 11, 2007 Georgia Rule co-production with Morgan Creek Productions June 1, 2007 Knocked Up co-production with Apatow Productions June 22, 2007 Evan Almighty co-production with Spyglass Entertainment, Shady Acres Entertainment, Relativity Media and Original Film July 20, 2007 I Now Pronounce You Chuck and Larry co-production with Happy Madison Productions, Relativity Media and Shady Acres Entertainment August 3, 2007 The Bourne Ultimatum co-production with Kennedy/Marshall August 24, 2007 Illegal Tender August 24, 2007 Mr. Bean's Holiday co-production with StudioCanal and Working Title Films September 21, 2007 Sydney White co-production with Morgan Creek Productions September 28, 2007 The Kingdom co-production with Relativity Media October 12, 2007 Elizabeth: The Golden Age November 2, 2007 American Gangster co-production with Imagine Entertainment and Relativity Media December 21, 2007 Charlie Wilson's War co-production with Relativity Media and Morgan Creek Productions January 11, 2008 The Pirates Who Don't Do Anything: A VeggieTales Movie co-production with Big Idea Productions January 25, 2008 Untraceable international distribution only, co-production with Screen Gems and Lakeshore Entertainment February 8, 2008 Welcome Home, Roscoe Jenkins co-production with Spyglass Entertainment February 14, 2008 Definitely, Maybe co-production with StudioCanal and Working Title Films March 14, 2008 Doomsday distribution only in some countries; produced by Rogue Pictures April 5, 2008 Leatherheads April 18, 2008 Forgetting Sarah Marshall co-production with Apatow Productions April 15, 2008 Baby Mama co-production with Relativity Media June 13, 2008 The Incredible Hulk distribution only; co-produced by Marvel Studios and Valhalla Motion Pictures June 27, 2008 Wanted co-production with Relativity Media, DiBonaventura Productions and Spyglass Entertainment July 11, 2008 Hellboy II: The Golden Army distribution only in some countries; produced by Rogue Pictures, Dark Horse Entertainment and Relativity Media July 18, 2008 Mamma Mia!: The Movie co-production with Relativity Media, Littlestar and Playtone August 1, 2008 The Mummy: Tomb of the Dragon Emperor co-production with Relativity Media, Alphaville and Sommers Company August 22, 2008 Death Race co-production with Relativity Media October 3, 2008 Flash of Genius USA, Japan and France distribution, co-production with Spyglass Entertainment and Strike Entertainment October 10, 2008 The Express co-production with Relativity Media October 31, 2008 Changeling co-production with Imagine Entertainment, Malpaso Productions and Relativity Media November 7, 2008 Role Models co-production with New Regency and Relativity Media December 5, 2008 Frost/Nixon co-production with Imagine Entertainment, Working Title Films, StudioCanal and Relativity Media December 19, 2008 The Tale of Despereaux co-production with Framestore CFC, Larger Than Life Productions, Relativity Media, and Universal Animation Studios January 9, 2009 The Unborn distribution only in some countries; co-production with Relativity Media, Rogue Pictures and Platinum Dunes February 6, 2009 Coraline International distribution, co-production with Focus Features, Laika, and Pandemonium March 20, 2009 Duplicity co-production with Relativity Media April 3, 2009 Fast & Furious co-produced with One Race Films, Original Film and Relativity Media April 17, 2009 State of Play co-production with Andell Entertainment, Working Title Films, Studio Canal and Relativity Media April 24, 2009 The Soloist international distribution, co-production with DreamWorks, StudioCanal, Participant Media and Working Title Films May 29, 2009 Drag Me to Hell co-produced with Ghost House Pictures June 5, 2009 Land of the Lost co-production with Relativity Media and Sid & Marty Krofft Pictures July 1, 2009 Public Enemies co-production with Relativity Media July 10, 2009 Brüno co-production with Media Rights Capital and Everyman Pictures July 31, 2009 Funny People USA distribution only; co-production with Columbia Pictures, Apatow Productions, Happy Madison and Relativity Media August 21, 2009 Inglourious Basterds International distribution only, co-production with A Band Apart and The Weinstein Company September 18, 2009 Love Happens co-production with Relativity Media October 9, 2009 Couples Retreat co-production with Relativity Media October 23, 2009 Cirque du Freak: The Vampire's Assistant co-production with Relativity Media November 6, 2009 The Fourth Kind co-production with Gold Circle Films and Dead Crow Productions November 13, 2009 Pirate Radio international distribution only, co-production with Focus Features, StudioCanal and Working Title Films December 25, 2009 It's Complicated co-production with Relativity Media 2010s Release date Title Notes January 8, 2010 Leap Year USA distribution only, co-production with Spyglass Entertainment February 12, 2010 The Wolfman co-production with Relativity Media and Stuber Pictures March 12, 2010 Green Zone co-production with StudioCanal, Relativity Media, and Working Title Films March 19, 2010 Repo Men co-production with Stuber Pictures and Relativity Media March 26, 2010 Kick-Ass international distribution only; co-production with Marv Films and Plan B Entertainment May 12, 2010 Robin Hood co-production with Imagine Entertainment, Relativity Media, and Scott Free Productions May 21, 2010 MacGruber distribution only; produced by Rogue Pictures and Relativity Media June 4, 2010 Get Him to the Greek co-production with Apatow Productions, Spyglass Entertainment, and Relativity Media July 9, 2010 Despicable Me co-production with Illumination Entertainment July 30, 2010 Charlie St. Cloud co-production with Relativity Media August 13, 2010 Scott Pilgrim vs. the World co-production with Big Talk Productions August 20, 2010 Nanny McPhee and the Big Bang released as Nanny McPhee and the Big Bang in the UK, co-production with StudioCanal, Relativity Media, and Working Title Films September 17, 2010 Devil distribution only; produced by Blinding Edge Pictures, The Night Chronicles and Media Rights Capital November 12, 2010 Skyline co-production with Rogue Pictures and Relativity Media December 22, 2010 Little Fockers USA distribution; co-production with Paramount Pictures and Relativity Media January 14, 2011 The Dilemma co-production with Imagine Entertainment and Spyglass Entertainment February 4, 2011 Sanctum distribution in some countries outside USA, co-production with Wayfare Entertainment and Relativity Media March 4, 2011 The Adjustment Bureau co-production with Media Rights Capital March 18, 2011 Paul co-produced with Working Title Films, Relativity Media, and Big Talk Productions April 1, 2011 Hop co-production with Illumination Entertainment and Relativity Media April 8, 2011 Your Highness co-production with Stuber Productions April 29, 2011 Fast Five co-production with Original Film and Relativity Media May 13, 2011 Bridesmaids co-production with Apatow Productions and Relativity Media July 1, 2011 Larry Crowne USA distribution only; co-production with Vendôme Pictures and Playtone July 29, 2011 Cowboys & Aliens USA distribution; co-production with DreamWorks (international), Relativity Media, Imagine Entertainment, K/O Paper Products, and Platinum Studios August 5, 2011 The Change-Up co-production with Original Film and Relativity Media September 2, 2011 A Dangerous Method Germany and Austria distribution only, co-production with Téléfilm Canada, Recorded Picture Company, Corus Entertainment, and Astral Media September 30, 2011 Dream House distribution only in North America; co-production with Morgan Creek Productions October 14, 2011 The Thing co-production with Morgan Creek Productions and Strike Entertainment October 21, 2011 Johnny English Reborn co-production with Working Title Films, StudioCanal, and Relativity Media November 4, 2011 Tower Heist co-production with Imagine Entertainment and Relativity Media January 13, 2012 Contraband co-production with Working Title Films, Relativity Media, Blueeyes Productions, Closest to the Hole and Leverage Productions February 3, 2012 Big Miracle co-production with Working Title Films and Anonymous Content February 10, 2012 Safe House co-production with Relativity Media and Bluegrass Films February 24, 2012 Wanderlust co-production with Relativity Media and Apatow Productions March 2, 2012 Dr. Seuss' The Lorax co-production with Illumination Entertainment April 6, 2012 American Reunion co-production with Relativity Media and Zide/Perry Productions April 27, 2012 The Five-Year Engagement co-production with Apatow Productions May 18, 2012 Battleship co-production with Hasbro, Film 44, and Bluegrass Films June 1, 2012 Snow White & the Huntsman co-production with Roth Films June 29, 2012 Ted co-production with Media Rights Capital, Fuzzy Door Productions, Bluegrass Films, and Smart Entertainment July 6, 2012 Savages co-production with Relativity Media August 10, 2012 The Bourne Legacy co-production with The Kennedy/Marshall Company August 17, 2012 ParaNorman International distribution only, co-production with Focus Features and Laika October 5, 2012 Pitch Perfect co-production with Gold Circle Films November 2, 2012 The Man with the Iron Fists co-production with Strike Entertainment November 16, 2012 Anna Karenina co-production with Focus Features and Working Title Films December 19, 2012 Zero Dark Thirty international distribution only[2] December 21, 2012 This Is 40 co-production with Apatow Productions December 25, 2012 Les Misérables co-production with Working Title Films, Relativity Media, and Cameron Mackintosh Ltd. January 18, 2013 Mama coo-production with Toma 78 and De Milo Productions February 8, 2013 Identity Thief co-production with Relativity Media, DumbDumb, and Bluegrass Films April 5, 2013 Jurassic Park (3-D rerelease) co-production with Amblin Entertainment April 19, 2013 Oblivion co-production with Relativity Media and Chernin Entertainment May 24, 2013 Fast & Furious 6 co-production with Original Film and Relativity Media June 7, 2013 The Purge co-production with Platinum Dunes and Blumhouse Productions July 3, 2013 Despicable Me 2 co-production with Illumination Entertainment July 19, 2013 R.I.P.D. co-production with Original Film and Dark Horse Entertainment August 2, 2013 2 Guns USA distribution only; co-production with Emmett/Furla Films, Marc Platt Productions, Oasis Ventures Entertainment Ltd., Empyre Media Capital, Herrick Entertainment, Envision Entertainment, and Boom! Studios August 16, 2013 Kick-Ass 2 co-production with Marv Films and Plan B Entertainment August 23, 2013 The World's End co-production with Focus Features, Relativity Media, Big Talk Productions and Working Title Films, also distribution outside the USA, and Focus Features released in the USA. September 6, 2013 Riddick co-production with Radar Pictures and One Race Films erdose of substances believed to be pain medication and was taken to Encino-Tarzana Regional Medical Center in Encino, California, where he was listed in critical condition.[27] After initial reports, Drew Pinsky, who had treated Conaway for substance abuse, said the actor was suffering not from a drug overdose but rather from pneumonia with sepsis, for which he was placed into an induced coma.[28][29] Though his pneumonia was not directly a result of drug usage, drug usage hampered Conaway's ability to recognize how severely ill he was and to seek treatment for pneumonia until it was too late.[30] On May 26, 2011, Conaway's family took him off life support after doctors decided there was nothing they could do to revive him. Conaway died the following morning at the age of 60.[30] Conaway's doctor attributed his death to his addiction, stating, "What happens is, like with most opiate addicts, eventually they take a little too much ... and they aspirate, so what's in their mouth gets into their lungs ... That's what happened with Jeff."[31] An autopsy performed on Conaway revealed that the actor died of various causes including pneumonia and encephalopathy attributable to drug overdoses.[32] Awards[edit] Golden Globe Award 1978 nomination, Best Supporting Actor, Comedy or Musical Series (for Taxi)[33] 1979 nomination, Best Supporting Actor, Comedy or Musical Series (for Taxi)[33] Filmography[edit] 1971: Jennifer on My Mind — Hanki 1976: The Eagle Has Landed — Frazier 1977: I Never Promised You a Rose Garden — Lactamaeon 1977: Pete's Dragon — Willie 1978: Grease — Kenickie 1980: For The Love of It — Russ 1984: Covergirl — T.C. Sloane 1986: The Patriot — Mitchell 1988: Elvira, Mistress of the Dark — Travis 1989: Ghost Writer — Tom Farrell 1989: Tale of Two Sisters — Taxi driver 1989: The Banker — Cowboy 1990: The Sleeping Car — Bud Sorenson 1991: A Time to Die — Frank 1991: Total Exposure — Peter Keynes 1992: Almost Pregnant — Charlie Alderson 1992: Bikini Summer II — Stu Stocker (also director) 1992: Eye of the Storm — Tom Edwards 1992: Mirror Images — Jeffrey Blair 1993: Alien Intruder — Borman 1993: In a Moment of Passion — Werner Soehnen 1993: It's Showtime 1993: L.A. Goddess — Sean 1993: Sunset Strip — Tony 1994: 2002: The Rape of Eden — Reverend 1997: The Last Embrace — Jagger 1998: Shadow of Doubt — Bixby 1999: Jawbreaker — Marcie's Father 1999: Man on the Moon — Himself 2001: Dating Service 2001: Do You Wanna Know a Secret? — Agent Owen Sacker 2002: Curse of the Forty-Niner — Reverend Sutter 2002: The Biz — Gavin Elliot 2003: Dickie Roberts: Former Child Star — Himself[34] 2004: Pan Dulce — Gabriel Levine 2004: The Corner Office — Dick 2004: Y.M.I. — Digger's Dad 2005: From Behind the Sunflower — Leo 2006: Living the Dream — Dick 2006: The Pool 2 — Agent Frank Gun 2006: The Utah Murder Project — Sheriff Dan Patterson 2008: Wrestling — Franklin Conner 2010: Dante's Inferno: Abandon All Hope — Circles Introduction[35] 2010: Dark Games — Tom Doyle Television work[edit] 1975: Happy Days — Rocko (2 episodes, 1975–1976) 1975: Joe Forrester (1 episode, 1975) 1975: Movin' On - "The Long Way To Nowhere" (S02, Ep10)- as Mike Miller (1 episode, 1975) 1976: Barnaby Jones — Jeff Saunders (2 episodes, 1976–1977) 1976: Mary Tyler Moore — Kenny Stevens (1 episode, 1976) 1977: Delta County, USA — Terry Nicholas 1978: Kojak — Bert Gaines (1 episode, 1978) 1978: Taxi — Bobby Wheeler (50 episodes, 1978–1982) 1979: Breaking Up Is Hard to Do — Roy Fletcher 1980: For the Love of It — Russ RSO Records From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2011) RSO Records RSO Records.jpg Parent company Universal Music Group Founded 1973 Paramount Pictures Corporation (commonly known as Paramount Studios or simply Paramount, and formerly known as Famous Players-Lasky Corporation) is a film studio, television production company and motion picture distributor, consistently ranked as one of the "Big Six" film studios of Hollywood. It is a subsidiary of U.S. media conglomerate Viacom. Paramount is a member of the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA).[1] In 2014, Paramount Pictures became the first major Hollywood studio to distribute all of its films in digital-form only.[2] Paramount is the fifth oldest surviving film studio in the world,[3] and America's oldest running studio, founded in 1912.[4] Contents [hide] 1 History 1.1 1911–1920: Early history 1.2 1921–1930: The rise 1.2.1 Publix, Balaban and Katz, Loew's competition, and wonder theaters 1.3 1931–1940: Receivership 1.4 1941–1950: United States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc. 1.5 1951–1966: Split and after 1.5.1 The DuMont Network 1.6 1966–1970: Early Gulf+Western era 1.7 1971–1980: CIC formation and high-concept era 1.8 1980–1994: Continuous success 1.9 1994–2004: Dolgen/Lansing and "old" Viacom era 1.10 2005: Dissolution of the Viacom Entertainment Group and Paramount 1.11 2005–present: Paramount today 1.11.1 CBS Corporation/Viacom split 1.11.2 DreamWorks purchased 1.11.3 UIP, Famous Music, and Digital Entertainment 2 Investments 2.1 DreamWorks 2.2 The CBS library 3 Units 3.1 Subsidiaries 3.2 Divisions 3.3 Joint ventures 3.4 Former divisions, subsidiaries, and joint ventures Janis Pliekšans – – distinguished Latvian writer author of a number of poetry collections Juris Podnieks – – film director producer Nikolajs Polakovs – – Coco the Clown Janis Poruks writer Rosa von Praunheim born – film director author painter and gay rights activist Sandis Prusis born – athlete bobsleigh Uldis Pucitis actor director Janis Pujats born – Roman Catholic cardinal Andrejs Pumpurs – – poet author of Latvian national epic Lacplesis R edit Rainis pseudonym of Janis Pliekšans poet and playwright Dans Rapoports American financier and philanthropist Lauris Reiniks – singer songwriter actor and TV personality Einars Repše born – politician Lolita Ritmanis born – orchestrator composer Ilja Ripss born inventor of the Bible Code Fricis Rokpelnis – – author Marks Rotko – – abstract expressionist painter Elza Rozenberga – – poet playwright married to Janis Pliekšans Juris Rubenis born – famous Lutheran pastor Martinš Rubenis born – athlete bronze medalist at the Winter Olympics in Turin Brunis Rubess born – businessman Inta Ruka born – photographer Tana Rusova born – pornographic actress S edit Rudolfs Saule born ballet master performer with the Latvian National Ballet Uljana Semjonova born – basketball player Haralds Silovs – short track and long track speed skater Karlis Skalbe – – poet Karlis Skrastinš – – ice hockey player Baiba Skride born – violinist Konstantins Sokolskis – – romance and tango singer Ksenia Solo born Latvian Canadian actress Serge Sorokko born art dealer and publisher Raimonds Staprans born – Latvian American painter Janis Šteinhauers – – Latvian industrialist entrepreneur and civil rights activist Gotthard Friedrich Stender – the first Latvian grammarian Lina Šterna – – biologist and social activist Roze Stiebra born animator Henrijs Stolovs – – stamp dealer Janis Streics born – film director screenwriter actor Janis Strelnieks born – basketball player Peteris Stucka – – author translator editor jurist and educator Janis Sudrabkalns poet and journalist Jevgenijs Svešnikovs born – prominent chess player Stanislavs Svjanevics – – economist and historian Š edit Viktors Šcerbatihs born – athlete weightlifter Pauls Šimanis – – Baltic German journalist politician activist defending and preserving European minority cultures Vestards Šimkus born – pianist Aleksejs Širovs born – chess player Andris Škele born – politician Prime Minister of Latvia Armands Škele – basketball player Ksenia Solo born – actress Ernests Štalbergs – – architect ensemble of the Freedom Monument Izaks Nahmans Šteinbergs – – politician lawyer and author Maris Štrombergs – BMX cyclist gold medal winner at and Olympics T edit Esther Takeuchi born – materials scientist and chemical engineer Mihails Tals – – the th World Chess Champion Janis Roberts Tilbergs – – painter sculptor U edit Guntis Ulmanis born – president of Latvia Karlis Ulmanis – – prime minister and president of Latvia


abby-lane abby-rode abigail-clayton ada-tauler addie-juniper addison-cain adele-wiesenthal adeline-lange adeline-pollicina adriana-amante adrianna-laurenti adrianna-russo agnes agnes-ardant agnes-zalontai aimee-addison aisha-sun aja aleena-ferari alessandra-schiavo aletta-ocean alexandra-nice alexandria-cass alexa-parks alex-dane alex-foxe alexia-knight alexis-devell alexis-firestone alexis-greco alexis-payne alexis-x alex-storm alex-white aliana-love alice-springs alicia-alighatti alicia-monet alicia-rio alicyn-sterling alighiera-olena ali-moore aline-santos alissa-ashley allysin-chaynes alysin-embers alyssa-love alyssa-reece amanda-addams amanda-blake amanda-blue amanda-jane-adams amanda-rae amanda-stone amanda-tyler amber-hunt amberlina-lynn amber-lynn amber-michaels amber-peach amber-wild amber-woods ambrosia-fox amia-miley ami-rodgers amy-allison amy-brooke amy-rose amy-starz anastasia-christ anastasia-sands andrea-adams andrea-brittian andrea-lange andrea-true andy angel angela-baron angela-summers angel-barrett angel-cash angel-cruz angel-cummings angel-ducharme angelica-sin angelika-reschner angelina-brasini angelina-korrs angelina-valentine angel-kelly angel-long angel-west angie-knight anita-andic anita-blond anita-cannibal anita-dark anna-belle anna-malle anna-nikova anna-pierce anna-ventura anna-veruska anne-bie-warburg anne-libert anne-magle anne-sand annette-haven annie-sprinkle ann-kiray ann-marie-michelle antonia-dorian april-flowers april-may april-west arcadia-lake ariana-bali ariana-jollee arlana-blue ashley-anne ashley-brooks ashley-coda ashley-fires ashley-lauren ashley-long ashley-marie ashley-nicole ashley-perk ashley-renee ashley-robbins ashley-welles ashley-wells ashley-winger ashlyn-gere astrid-bone athena-star aubrey-nichols aurora aurora-snow autumn-bliss autumn-rayne ava-devine ava-lauren avalon ava-marteens avy-lee-roth bailey-monroe bambi-allen barbara-bourbon barbara-boutet barbara-dare barbara-doll barbara-moose barbarella barbie-angel barbie-doll barett-moore bea-fiedler beata beatrice-poggi beatrice-valle becky-savage becky-sunshine belinda-butterfield bella-donna bethany-sweet beverly-bliss beverly-glen biggi-stenzhorn bionca black-widow blond-cat blondi blue-angel bobbi-bliss bobbi-dean bobbie-burns bonnie-holiday brandee brandi-edwards brandy-alexandre brandy-dean brandy-lee brandy-smile brandy-wine bree-anthony breezy-lane brenda-basse briana-blair bridgette-belle bridgette-monet bridgette-monroe bridget-waters brigitte-lahaie brigitte-monnin brigitte-verbecq brittany brittany-stryker britt-corvin britt-morgan bronze brooke-bennett brooke-fields brooke-haven brooke-west brook-van-buuren buffy-davis bunnie-blake bunny-bleu bunny-hatton busty-belle cali-caramel calisyn-heart cameo cameron-love camila-sampaio camilla-rhodes camille-morgan camrie-foxxx candace-daley candi candida-royalle candie-evens candi-summers candy-apples candy-barr candy-hill candy-samples candy-stanton cara-lott caressa-savage carmel-nougat carmen-blonde carmen-de-la-torre carmen-moore carmen-rose carol-connors carol-cross carol-cummings carole-dubois carole-gire carole-pierac carol-titian carolyn-connoly carolyn-monroe carrie-cruise cassandra-leigh cassidy cassie-courtland cataline-bullock catherine-count catherine-crystal catherine-ringer catherine-tailleferre cathy-delorme cathy-menard cathy-stewart celeste-fox celine-gallone chanel-preston chanel-price chantal-virapin chanta-rose chantelle-stevens charisma charisma-cole charlie-latour charlie-waters charlotte-de-castille charmane-star chasey-lain chayse-manhattan chaz-vincent chelsea-sinclaire chennin-blanc cheri-janvier cheri-taylor cherry-hill chessie-moore cheyenne-hunter cheyenne-silver china-lee china-leigh china-moon chloe-cruize chloe-dior chloe-kez chloe-stevens chris-collins chris-jordan chris-petersen chrissie-beauchamp christa-abel christa-ludwig christie-ford christi-lake christina-berg christina-blond christina-evol christina-skye christine-black christine-chavert christine-neona christine-rigoler christy-canyon cicciolina cindi-stephens cindy-carver cindy-crawford cindy-more cindy-shepard cindy-wong cinthya-marinho clair-dia claire-robbins claude-janna claudia-jackson claudia-jamsson claudia-mehringer claudia-nero claudia-van-statt claudia-zante claudine-beccarie clea-carson cleo-nichole cleo-patra cody-lane cody-love cody-nicole coffee-brown colleen-brennan connie-bennett connie-peterson constance-money copper-penny coreena corey-everson corinne-lemoine corneliah cory-everson cory-wolf courtney courtney-cummz courtney-james cris-cassidy crissy-moran cris-taliana crystal-breeze crystal-dawn crystal-holland crystal-knight crystal-lake crystal-lovin crystal-sync csilla-kalnay cuban-bee cynara-fox cyndee-summers cynthia-black cynthia-brooks cynthia-hammers cynthia-lavigne dagmar-lost daisy-layne dallas-miko dana-dylan dana-lynn danica-rhea daniela-nanou daniela-schiffer daniele-troeger daniella daniella-schiffer danielle danielle-foxxx danielle-rodgers danny-ricci danyel-cheeks daphne daphne-rosen darby-lloyd-rains darla-crane darla-delovely davia-ardell dayton-rain debbie-northrup debbie-revenge debbie-van-gils debi-diamond debi-jointed debra-lynn deidra-hopkins deidre-holland delania-raffino delia-moore delphine-thail delta-force delta-white demi-moor denice-klarskov denise-derringer denise-dior denise-sloan desiree-cousteau desiree-foxx desiree-lane desiree-west deva-station devin-devasquez devinn-lane devon-shire dia diana-holt diana-kisabonyi diana-siefert diana-stevenson diane-dubois diane-richards diane-sloan diane-suresne dido-angel dillan-lauren dina-deville dina-jewel dina-pearl ditty-blue diva divinity-love djiana dolly-darkley dominique dominique-dewitt dominique-saint-claire donna-hart donna-marie dorle-buchner dorothy-lemay dorothy-onan drea drimla dru-berrymore dusty-rose dyanna-lauren ebony-ayes edina-blond edita-ungerova edwige-faillel eileen-wells elaine-southern elena-berkova elena-maria-ricci eleonore-melzer elisabeth-bure elis-black elise elise-di-medici elle-devyne elle-rio elodie-delage elsa-maroussia elza-brown emili-doll emily-evermoore emily-george emily-jewel emmanuelle-pareze envy-mi erica-boyer erica-eaton erica-havens erica-idol erica-lauren erika-bella erika-cool erika-heaven erika-lockett esme-monroe eva-allen eva-angel eva-dionisio eva-gross eva-kleber eva-lux eva-uettori eve-laurence evelyne-lang evie-delatosso fabiana-venturi faith-stevens fallon fanny-garreau fanny-steel faye-runaway flame flick-shagwell flore-soller flower france-lomay france-quenie francoise frankie-leigh gabriella gabriella-mirelba gabriella-vincze gail-force gail-palmer gail-sterling georgette-saunders georgia-peach georgina-spelvin gia-givanna gianna-lynn gili-sky gina-carrera gina-gianetti gina-janssen gina-lee gina-martell gina-valentino ginger-jay ginger-lee ginger-lynn ginny-noack giovanna gisela-schwarz giselle-monet gladys-laroche gloria-leonard gloria-todd golden-jade greta-carlson greta-milos guia-lauri-filzi gwenda-farnel hare-krane harley-raine hayley-jade hazel-young heather-deeley heather-ellis heather-hart heather-lere heather-lyn heather-manfield heather-thomas heather-torrance heather-wayne heather-young helen-madigan helen-thomas helga-sven helga-wild hillary-summers holly-hollywood holly-joy holly-page holly-ryder honey-winter hottie-hollie hyapatia-lee ida-fabry ildiko-smits illana-moor ines-ridere ingrid-choray isabella-dior isabella-soprano isabelle-allay isabelle-brell isabelle-marchall isobel-wren iveta ivette-blanche jackie-right jacqueline-lorians jacy-allen jada-stevens jade-east jade-hsu jade-marcela jade-summers jade-wong jahn-gold jamie-brooks jamie-james jamie-summers jana-irrova jana-mrazkova jane-baker jane-darling jane-iwanoff jane-lindsay jane-lixx janet-jacme janey-robbins jasmine-delatori jayden-simone jaylyn-rose jayna-woods jazella-moore jazmin-luna-gold jean-afrique jeanette-littledove jeanie-marie-sullivan jean-jennings jeanna-fine jeannie-pepper jenna-jameson jenna-jane jenna-presley jenna-wells jennifer-haussmann jennifer-janes jennifer-jordan jennifer-morante jennifer-noxt jennifer-stewart jennifer-welles jennifer-west jenny jenny-feeling jenny-fields jenny-wings jersey-jaxin jesie-st-james jesse-capelli jessica-bangkok jessica-bogart jessica-darlin jessica-fiorentino jessica-gabriel jessica-laine jessica-may jessica-road jessica-wylde jessi-foster jill-ferari jill-kelly joana-redgrave joan-devlon joanna-storm joanna-sweet jody-maxwell joelle-lequement joelle-petinot johnni-black jordana-james jordan-green jordan-nevaeh jordan-star josephine-carrington joslyn-james julia-chanel julia-dal-fuoco juliana-grandi julia-paes julia-parton julia-perrin julia-swen julia-thomas julie-meadows julie-rage julie-simone juliet-anderson juliet-graham juliette-carelton kacey-jordan kagney-linn-karter kaitlyn-ashley kalena-rios kami-andrews kamila-smith kandee-licks kandi-barbour kapri-styles kara-nox karen-summer kari-foxx karine-gambier karin-schubert karli-sweet karmen-kennedy karol-castro kascha kassi-nova kat kate-frost kate-jones kathia-nobili kathleen-gentry kathleen-white kathy-divan kathy-harcourt kathy-heart kathy-kash katie-cummings katja-love kat-langer katrina-isis katrina-kraven katy-borman katy-caro kaycee-dean kayla-kupcakes kay-parker k-c-valentine keama-kim keira-moon keisha keli-richards kelli-tyler kelly-adams kelly-blue kelly-broox kelly-hearn kelly-kay kelly-kline kelly-nichols kelly-royce kelly-skyline kendra-kay kenzi-marie keri-windsor ketthy-divan kianna-dior kiley-heart kim-alexis kimber-blake kimberly-carson kimberly-kane kimberly-kyle kim-de-place kim-holland kimi-gee kimkim-de kim-kitaine kimmie-lee kimmy-nipples kina-kara kira-eggers kira-red kirsty-waay kitty-langdon kitty-lynxxx kitty-marie kitty-shayne kitty-yung kora-cummings kris-lara krista-lane krista-maze kristara-barrington kristarah-knight kristi-klenot kristina-blonde kristina-king kristina-klevits kristina-soderszk kristine-heller kristin-steen krisztina-ventura krystal-de-boor krystal-steal kylee-karr kylee-nash kylie-brooks kylie-channel kylie-haze kylie-wylde kym-wilde kyoto-sun lachelle-marie lacy-rose lady-amanda-wyldefyre lady-stephanie laetitia-bisset lana-burner lana-cox lana-wood lara-amour lara-roxx lara-stevens lataya-roxx latoya laura-clair laura-lazare laura-lion laura-may laura-orsolya laura-paouck laura-zanzibar lauren-black laurence-boutin lauren-montgomery laurien-dominique laurien-wilde laurie-smith lauryl-canyon lauryn-may leah-wilde lea-magic lea-martini leanna-foxxx lee-caroll leigh-livingston leilani lenora-bruce leslie-winston lesllie-bovee letizia-bruni lexi-lane lexi-matthews lezley-zen lia-fire liliane-gray liliane-lemieuvre lili-marlene lily-gilder lily-labeau lily-rodgers lily-valentine linda-shaw linda-vale linda-wong linnea-quigley lisa-bright lisa-de-leeuw lisa-k-loring lisa-lake lisa-melendez lisa-sue-corey lise-pinson little-oral-annie liza-dwyer liza-harper lizzy-borden logan-labrent lois-ayres lola-cait long-jean-silver loni-bunny loni-sanders loona-luxx lorelei-lee lorelei-rand lorena-sanchez lori-alexia lori-blue lorrie-lovett luci-diamond lucie-doll lucie-theodorova lucy-van-dam lydia-baum lynn-franciss lynn-lemay lynn-ray lynn-stevens lynx-canon lysa-thatcher madelina-ray madison-parker magdalena-lynn maggie-randall mai-lin mandi-wine mandy-bright mandy-malone mandy-may mandy-mistery mandy-starr marcia-minor maren margit-ojetz margitta-hofer margo-stevens margot-mahler mariah-cherry marianne-aubert maria-tortuga marie-anne marie-christine-chireix marie-christine-veroda marie-claude-moreau marie-dominique-cabannes marie-france-morel marie-luise-lusewitz marie-sharp marilyn-chambers marilyne-leroy marilyn-gee marilyn-jess marilyn-martyn marilyn-star marina-hedman marion-webb marita-ekberg marita-kemper marlena marlene-willoughby marry-queen martine-grimaud martine-schultz maryanne-fisher mary-hubay mary-ramunno mary-stuart mascha-mouton maud-kennedy mauvais-denoir maxine-tyler maya-black maya-france megan-leigh megan-martinez megan-reece mei-ling melanie-hotlips melanie-scott melba-cruz melinda-russell melissa-bonsardo melissa-del-prado melissa-golden melissa-martinez melissa-melendez melissa-monet mercedes-dragon mercedes-lynn merle-michaels mesha-lynn mia-beck mia-lina mia-smiles michele-raven michelle-aston michelle-ferrari michelle-greco michelle-maren michelle-maylene michelle-monroe micki-lynn mika-barthel mika-tan mikki-taylor mimi-morgan mindy-rae ming-toy miranda-stevens miss-bunny miss-meadow miss-pomodoro missy missy-graham missy-stone missy-vega misti-jane mistress-candice misty-anderson misty-dawn misty-rain misty-regan mona-lisa mona-page moni monica-baal monica-swinn monika-peta monika-sandmayr monika-unco monique-bruno monique-cardin monique-charell monique-demoan monique-gabrielle monique-la-belle morgan-fairlane morrigan-hel moxxie-maddron mulani-rivera mysti-may nadege-arnaud nadia-styles nadine-bronx nadine-proutnal nadine-roussial nadi-phuket nanci-suiter nancy-hoffman nancy-vee natacha-delyro natalia-wood natalli-diangelo natascha-throat natasha-skyler naudia-nyce nessa-devil nessy-grant nesty nicki-hunter nicky-reed nicole-berg nicole-bernard nicole-black nicole-grey nicole-london nicole-parks nicole-scott nicole-taylor nicolette-fauludi nicole-west nika-blond nika-mamic niki-cole nikita-love nikita-rush nikki-charm nikki-grand nikki-king nikki-knight nikki-randall nikki-rhodes nikki-santana nikki-steele nikki-wilde niko nina-cherry nina-deponca nina-hartley nina-preta oana-efria obaya-roberts olesja-derevko olga-cabaeva olga-conti olga-pechova olga-petrova olivia-alize olivia-del-rio olivia-flores olivia-la-roche olivia-outre ophelia-tozzi orchidea-keresztes orsolya-blonde paige-turner paisley-hunter pamela-bocchi pamela-jennings pamela-mann pamela-stanford pamela-stealt pandora paola-albini pascale-vital pat-manning pat-rhea patricia-dale patricia-diamond patricia-kennedy patricia-rhomberg patrizia-predan patti-cakes patti-petite paula-brasile paula-harlow paula-morton paula-price paula-winters pauline-teutscher penelope-pumpkins penelope-valentin petra-hermanova petra-lamas peyton-lafferty phaedra-grant pia-snow piper-fawn pipi-anderson porsche-lynn porsha-carrera precious-silver priscillia-lenn purple-passion queeny-love rachel-ashley rachel-love rachel-luv rachel-roxxx rachel-ryan rachel-ryder racquel-darrian rane-revere raven reagan-maddux rebecca-bardoux regan-anthony regine-bardot regula-mertens reina-leone reka-gabor renae-cruz renee-foxx renee-lovins renee-morgan renee-perez renee-summers renee-tiffany rhonda-jo-petty rikki-blake riley-ray rio-mariah rita-ricardo roberta-gemma roberta-pedon robin-byrd robin-cannes robin-everett robin-sane rochell-starr rosa-lee-kimball rosemarie roxanne-blaze roxanne-hall roxanne-rollan ruby-richards sabina-k sabre sabrina-chimaera sabrina-dawn sabrina-jade sabrina-johnson sabrina-love-cox sabrina-mastrolorenzi sabrina-rose sabrina-scott sabrina-summers sacha-davril sahara sahara-sands sai-tai-tiger samantha-fox samantha-ryan samantha-sterlyng samantha-strong samueline-de-la-rosa sandra-cardinale sandra-de-marco sandra-kalermen sandra-russo sandy-lee sandy-pinney sandy-reed sandy-samuel sandy-style sandy-summers sara-brandy-canyon sara-faye sarah-bernard sarah-cabrera sarah-hevyn sarah-mills sarah-shine sara-sloane sasha sasha-hollander sasha-ligaya sasha-rose satine-phoenix satin-summer savannah-stern savanna-jane scarlet-scarleau scarlet-windsor seka selena serena serena-south severine-amoux shana-evans shanna-mccullough shannon-kelly shannon-rush shantell-day sharon-da-vale sharon-kane sharon-mitchell shaun-michelle shawna-sexton shawnee-cates shay-hendrix shayne-ryder sheena-horne sheer-delight shelby-star shelby-stevens shelly-berlin shelly-lyons sheri-st-clair sheyla-cats shonna-lynn shyla-foxxx shy-love sierra-sinn sierra-skye sigrun-theil silver-starr silvia-bella silvia-saint silvie-de-lux silvy-taylor simone-west sindee-coxx sindy-lange sindy-shy siobhan-hunter skylar-knight skylar-price skyler-dupree smokie-flame smoking-mary-jane solange-shannon sonya-summers sophia-santi sophie-call sophie-duflot sophie-evans sophie-guers stacey-donovan stacy-lords stacy-moran stacy-nichols stacy-silver stacy-thorn starla-fox starr-wood stefania-bruni stella-virgin stephanie-duvalle stephanie-rage stephanie-renee stevie-taylor summer-knight summer-rose sunny-day sunset-thomas sunshine-seiber susan-hart susanne-brend susan-nero susi-hotkiss suzanne-mcbain suzan-nielsen suzie-bartlett suzie-carina suzi-sparks sweet-nice sweety-pie sybille-rossani sylvia-benedict sylvia-bourdon sylvia-brand sylvia-engelmann syreeta-taylor syren-de-mer syvette szabina-black szilvia-lauren tai-ellis taija-rae taisa-banx talia-james tamara-lee tamara-longley tamara-n-joy tamara-west tami-white tammy tammy-lee tammy-reynolds tania-lorenzo tantala-ray tanya-danielle tanya-fox tanya-foxx tanya-lawson tanya-valis tara-aire tasha-voux tatjana-belousova tatjana-skomorokhova tawnee-lee tawny-pearl tayla-rox taylor-wane teddi-austin teddi-barrett tera-bond tera-heart tera-joy teresa-may teresa-orlowski teri-diver teri-weigel terri-dolan terri-hall tess-ferre tess-newheart thais-vieira tia-cherry tianna tiara tiffany-blake tiffany-clark tiffany-duponte tiffany-rayne tiffany-rousso tiffany-storm tiffany-towers tiffany-tyler tiger-lily tigr timea-vagvoelgyi tina-blair tina-burner tina-evil tina-gabriel tina-loren tina-marie tina-russell tish-ambrose tommi-rose tonisha-mills topsy-curvey tori-secrets tori-sinclair tori-welles tracey-adams traci-lords traci-topps traci-winn tracy-duzit tracy-love tracy-williams tricia-devereaux tricia-yen trinity-loren trisha-rey trista-post trixie-tyler ultramax ursula-gaussmann ursula-moore uschi-karnat valentina valerie-leveau valery-hilton vanessa-chase vanessa-del-rio vanessa-michaels vanessa-ozdanic vanilla-deville velvet-summers veri-knotty veronica-dol veronica-hart veronica-hill veronica-rayne veronica-sage veronika-vanoza via-paxton vicky-lindsay vicky-vicci victoria-evans victoria-gold victoria-knight victoria-luna victoria-paris victoria-slick victoria-zdrok viper virginie-caprice vivian-valentine vivien-martines wendi-white wendy-divine whitney-banks whitney-fears whitney-wonders wonder-tracey wow-nikki xanthia-berstein yasmine-fitzgerald yelena-shieffer yvonne-green zara-whites zsanett-egerhazi zuzie-boobies

? 9% Other ? 1% The Mosque of Muhammad Ali. Egypt is a predominantly Sunni Muslim country with Islam as its state religion. The percentage of adherents of various religions is a controversial topic in Egypt. An estimated 90% are identified as Muslim, 9% as Coptic Christians, and 1% as other Christian denominations.[nb 2] Non-denominational Muslims form roughly 12% of the population.[211] After Islam arrived in the 7th century, Egypt emerged as a centre of politics and culture in the Muslim world. Under Anwar Sadat, Islam became the official state religion and Sharia the main source of law.[212] It is estimated that 15 million Egyptians follow Native Sufi orders,[213][214][215] with the Sufi leadership asserting that the numbers are much greater as many Egyptian Sufis are not officially registered with a Sufi order.[214] There is also a Shi'a minority. The Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs estimates the Shia population at 1 to 2.2 million[216] and could measure as much as 3 million.[217] The Ahmadiyya population is estimated at less than 50 thousand,[218] whereas the Salafi (ultra-conservative) population is estimated at five to six million.[219] Cairo is famous for its numerous mosque minarets and has been dubbed "The City of 1,000 Minarets".[220] The Church of The Virgin Mary, Ismailia. Of the Christian minority in Egypt over 90% belong to the native Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, an Oriental Orthodox Christian Church.[221] Other native Egyptian Christians are adherents of the Coptic Catholic Church, the Evangelical Church of Egypt and various other Protestant denominations. Non-native Christian communities are largely found in the urban regions of Cairo and Alexandria, such as the Syro-Lebanese, who belong to Greek Catholic, Greek Orthodox, and Maronite Catholic denominations.[222] Ethnic Greeks also made up a large Greek Orthodox population in the past. Likewise, Armenians made up the then larger Armenian Orthodox and Catholic communities. Egypt also used to have a large Roman Catholic community, largely made up of Italians and Maltese. These non-native communities were much larger in Egypt before the Nasser regime and the nationalisation that took place. Egypt hosts two major religious institutions, the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, established in the middle of the 1st century CE by Saint Mark the Evangelist, and Al-Azhar University, founded in 970 CE by the Fatimids as the first[dubious – discuss] Islamic School and University in the world. Egypt recognises only three religions: Islam, Christianity, and Judaism. Other faiths and minority Muslim sects practised by Egyptians, such as the small Bahá'í and Ahmadi community, are not recognised by the state and face persecution since they are recognised as far right groups that threaten Egypt's national security.[223][224] Individuals, particularly Baha'is and atheists, wishing to include such religions on their mandatory state issued identification cards are denied this ability (see Egyptian identification card controversy), and are put in the position of either not obtaining required identification or lying about their faith. A 2008 court ruling allowed members of unrecognised faiths to obtain identification and leave the religion field blank.[138][139] Largest cities See also: List of cities in Egypt v t e Largest cities or towns in Egypt world-gazetteer Estimates for 2012 Rank Name Governorate Pop. Rank Name Governorate Pop. Cairo Cairo Alexandria Alexandria 1 Cairo Cairo 8,105,071 11 Asyut Asyut 403,202 Giza Giza Shubra El-Kheima Shubra El-Kheima 2 Alexandria Alexandria 4,388,219 12 Ismailia Ismailia 352,411 3 Giza Giza 3,348,401 13 Faiyum Faiyum 338,959 4 Shubra El-Kheima Qalyubia 1,072,951 14 Zagazig Al Sharqia 314,331 5 Port Said Port Said 607,353 15 Damietta Damietta 299,296 6 Suez Suez 547,352 16 Aswan Aswan 281,891 7 El-Mahalla El-Kubra Gharbia 538,297 17 Minya Minya 253,767 8 Luxor Luxor 487,896 18 Damanhour Beheira 252,017 9 Mansoura Dakahlia 470,494 19 Beni Suef Beni Suef 223,789 10 Tanta Gharbia 437,793 20 Hurghada Red Sea 223,124 Culture Main article: Culture of Egypt Al-Azhar Park is listed as one of the world's sixty great public spaces by the Project for Public Spaces Bibliotheca Alexandrina is a commemoration of the ancient Library of Alexandria in Egypt's second largest city. Egypt is a recognised cultural trend-setter of the Arabic-speaking world. Contemporary Arabic and Middle-Eastern culture is heavily influenced by Egyptian literature, music, film and television. Egypt gained a regional leadership role during the 1950s and 1960s, giving a further enduring boost to the standing of Egyptian culture in the Arabic-speaking world.[225] Egyptian identity evolved in the span of a long period of occupation to accommodate Islam, Christianity and Judaism; and a new language, Arabic, and its spoken descendant, Egyptian Arabic which is also based on many Ancient Egyptian words.[226] The work of early 19th-century scholar Rifa'a al-Tahtawi renewed interest in Egyptian antiquity and exposed Egyptian society to Enlightenment principles. Tahtawi co-founded with education reformer Ali Mubarak a native Egyptology school that looked for inspiration to medieval Egyptian scholars, such as Suyuti and Maqrizi, who themselves studied the history, language and antiquities of Egypt.[227] Egypt's renaissance peaked in the late 19th and early 20th centuries through the work of people like Muhammad Abduh, Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed, Muhammad Loutfi Goumah, Tawfiq el-Hakim, Louis Awad, Qasim Amin, Salama Moussa, Taha Hussein and Mahmoud Mokhtar. They forged a liberal path for Egypt expressed as a commitment to personal freedom, secularism and faith in science to bring progress.[228] Arts Weighing of the heart scene from the Book of the Dead The Egyptians were one of the first major civilisations to codify design elements in art and architecture. Egyptian blue, also known as calcium copper silicate is a pigment used by Egyptians for thousands of years. It is considered to be the first synthetic pigment. The wall paintings done in the service of the Pharaohs followed a rigid code of visual rules and meanings. Egyptian civilisation is renowned for its colossal pyramids, temples and monumental tombs. Well-known examples are the Pyramid of Djoser designed by ancient architect and engineer Imhotep, the Sphinx, and the temple of Abu Simbel. Modern and contemporary Egyptian art can be as diverse as any works in the world art scene, from the vernacular architecture of Hassan Fathy and Ramses Wissa Wassef, to Mahmoud Mokhtar's sculptures, to the distinctive Coptic iconography of Isaac Fanous. The Cairo Opera House serves as the main performing arts venue in the Egyptian capital. Literature Main article: Egyptian Literature Naguib Mahfouz the first Arabic-language writer to win the Nobel Prize in Literature. Egyptian literature traces its beginnings to ancient Egypt and is some of the earliest known literature. Indeed, the Egyptians were the first culture to develop literature as we know it today, that is, the book.[229] It is an important cultural element in the life of Egypt. Egyptian novelists and poets were among the first to experiment with modern styles of Arabic literature, and the forms they developed have been widely imitated throughout the Middle East.[230] The first modern Egyptian novel Zaynab by Muhammad Husayn Haykal was published in 1913 in the Egyptian vernacular.[231] Egyptian novelist Naguib Mahfouz was the first Arabic-language writer to win the Nobel Prize in Literature. Egyptian women writers include Nawal El Saadawi, well known for her feminist activism, and Alifa Rifaat who also writes about women and tradition. Vernacular poetry is perhaps the most popular literary genre among Egyptians, represented by the works of Ahmed Fouad Negm (Fagumi), Salah Jaheen and Abdel Rahman el-Abnudi.[citation needed] Popular culture Egypt's media industry has flourished, with more than thirty satellite channels and over one hundred motion pictures produced each year. Egyptian media are highly influential throughout the Arab World, attributed to large audiences and increasing freedom from government control.[232][233] Freedom of the media is guaranteed in the constitution; however, many laws still restrict this right.[232][234] Cinema Suad Husni, film star. Egyptian cinema became a regional force with the coming of sound. In 1936, Studio Misr, financed by industrialist Talaat Harb, emerged as the leading Egyptian studio, a role the company retained for three decades.[235] For over 100 years, more than 4000 films have been produced in Egypt, three quarters of the total Arab production.[citation needed] Egypt is considered the leading country in the field of cinema in the Middle East. Actors from all over the Arab World seek to appear in the Egyptian cinema for the sake of fame. The Cairo International Film Festival has been rated as one of 11 festivals with a top class rating worldwide by the International Federation of Film Producers' Associations.[236] Music Main article: Music of Egypt Umm Kulthum is widely regarded as the greatest female Arabic singer in history. Egyptian music is a rich mixture of indigenous, Mediterranean, African and Western elements. It has been an integral part of Egyptian culture since antiquity. The ancient Egyptians credited one of their gods Hathor with the invention of music, which Osiris in turn used as part of his effort to civilise the world. Egyptians used music instruments since then.[237] Contemporary Egyptian music traces its beginnings to the creative work of people such as Abdu El Hamouli, Almaz and Mahmoud Osman, who influenced the later work of Sayed Darwish, Umm Kulthum, Mohammed Abdel Wahab and Abdel Halim Hafez whose age is considered the golden age of music in Egypt and the whole Middle East and North-Africa. Prominent contemporary Egyptian pop singers include Amr Diab and Mohamed Mounir. Tanoura dancer performing in Wekalet el Ghoury, Cairo. Dance Egyptian belly dance Today, Egypt is often considered the home of belly dance. Egyptian belly dance has two main styles - raqs baladi and raqs sharqi. There are also numerous folkloric and character dances that may be part of an Egyptian-style belly dancer's repertoire, as well as the modern shaabi street dance which shares some elements with raqs baladi. Museums Main article: List of museums in Egypt The Egyptian Museum Egypt has one of the oldest civilisations in the world. It has been in contact with many other civilisations and nations and has been through so many eras, starting from prehistoric age to the modern age, passing through so many ages such as; Pharonic, Roman, Greek, Islamic and many other ages. Because of this wide variation of ages, the continuous contact with other nations and the big number of conflicts Egypt had been through, at least 60 museums may be found in Egypt, mainly covering a wide area of these ages and conflicts. Tutankhamun's burial mask is The Egyptian Museum's major attraction The three main museums in Egypt are; The Egyptian Museum which has more than 120,000 items, the Egyptian National Military Museum and the 6th of October Panorama. The Grand Egyptian Museum (GEM), also known as the Giza Museum, is a planned museum of artefacts of ancient Egypt. Described as the largest archaeological museum in the world,[238] the museum is scheduled to open in 2015. The museum will be sited on 50 hectares (120 acres) of land approximately two kilometres from the Giza Necropolis and is part of a new master plan for the plateau. Festivals Egypt celebrates many festivals and religious carnivals, also known as mulid. They are usually associated with a particular Coptic or Sufi saint, but are often celebrated by Egyptians irrespective of creed or religion. Ramadan has a special flavour in Egypt, celebrated with sounds, lights (local lanterns known as fawanees) and much flare that many Muslim tourists from the region flock to Egypt to witness during Ramadan. The ancient spring festival of Sham en Nisim (Coptic: ???‘?????? shom en nisim) has been celebrated by Egyptians for thousands of years, typically between the Egyptian months of Paremoude (April) and Pashons (May), following Easter Sunday. Cuisine Main article: Egyptian cuisine Kushari, one of Egypt's national dishes Egyptian cuisine is notably conducive to vegetarian diets, as it relies heavily on vegetable dishes. Though food in Alexandria and the coast of Egypt tends to use a great deal of fish and other seafood, for the most part Egyptian cuisine is based on foods that grow out of the ground. Meat has been very expensive for most Egyptians throughout history, so a great number of vegetarian dishes have been developed. Some consider koshari (a mixture of rice, lentils, and macaroni) to be the national dish. Fried onions can be also added to koshari. In addition, ful medames (mashed fava beans) is one of the most popular dishes. Fava bean is also used in making falafel (also known as "ta'meyya"), which may have originated in Egypt and spread to other parts of the Middle East. Garlic fried with coriander is added to mulukhiyya, a popular green soup made from finely chopped jute leaves, sometimes with chicken or rabbit. Sports Crowd in Cairo Stadium Football is the most popular national sport of Egypt. The Cairo Derby is one of the fiercest derbies in Africa, and the BBC picked it as one of the 7 toughest derbies in the world.[239] Al Ahly is the most successful club of the 20th century in the African continent according to CAF, closely followed by their rivals Zamalek SC. Al Ahly was named in 2000 by the Confederation of African Football as the "African Club of the Century". With twenty titles, Al Ahly is currently the world's most successful club in terms of international trophies, surpassing Italy's A.C. Milan and Argentina's Boca Juniors, both having eighteen.[240] The Egyptian national football team known as the "Pharaohs" won the African Cup of Nations seven times, including three times in a row in 2006, 2008, and 2010. Considered the most successful African national team and one of the very few African teams that reached the 9th ranking on the FIFA world ranks, Egypt has only qualified to the FIFA World Cup two times only though. The Egyptian Youth National team "Young Pharaohs" won the Bronze Medal of the 2001 FIFA youth world cup in Argentina. Ramy Ashour World N.1 Squash player in 2010 Squash and tennis are other popular sports in Egypt. The Egyptian squash team has been known for its fierce competition in international championships since the 1930s. Amr Shabana and Ramy Ashour are Egypt's best players and both were ranked as "World's Number One Squash Player". Among all African nations, the Egypt national basketball team holds the record for best performance at the Basketball World Cup and at the Summer Olympics.[241][242] Further, the team has won a record number of 16 medals at the African Championship. In 1999, Egypt hosted the IHF World Men's Handball Championship, and in 2001, the national handball team achieved its best result in the tournament by reaching the fourth place. Egypt has won first place five times in the African Men's Handball Championship, five times second place, and four times third place. In addition to that, it also championed the Mediterranean Games in 2013, the Beach Handball World Championships in 2004 and the Summer Youth Olympics in 2010. Egypt has taken part in the Summer Olympic Games since 1912 and hosted the first Mediterranean Games in 1951, Alexandria. Egypt has hosted several international competitions. the last one was 2009 FIFA U-20 World Cup which took place between 24 September - 16 October 2009. On Friday 19 September of the year 2014, Guinness World Records has announced that Egyptian scuba diver Ahmed Gabr is the new title holder for deepest salt water scuba dive, at 332.35 metres.[243] Ahmed set a new world record Friday when he reached a depth of more than 1,000 feet. The 14-hour feat took Gabr 1,066 feet down into the abyss near the Egyptian town of Dahab in ther Red Sea, where he works as a diving instructor.[244] On 1 September 2015 Raneem El Weleily was ranked as the world number one woman squash player.[245] Other Egyptian squash player women are Nour El Tayeb, Omneya Abdel Kawy, Kanzy Emad El-Defrawy and Nour El Sherbini. Telecommunication Main article: Telecommunications in Egypt The wired and wireless telecommunication industry in Egypt started in 1854 with the launch of the country's first telegram line connecting Cairo and Alexandria. The first telephone line between the two cities was installed in 1881.[246] In September 1999 a national project for a technological renaissance was announced reflecting the commitment of the Egyptian government to developing the country's IT-sector. Cellular Cellular GSM services were first launched in Egypt in 1996.[246] It is currently offering 2G/3G service, while LTE is under trials.[247] Egypt has 3 companies offering cellular services; The following outline is provided as an overview of a topical guide to ancient Egypt: Ancient Egypt was an ancient civilization of eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. Egyptian civilization coalesced around 3150 BCE (according to conventional Egyptian chronology)[1] with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh.[2] The many achievements of the ancient Egyptians include the quarrying, surveying and construction techniques that facilitated the building of monumental pyramids, temples, and obelisks; a system of mathematics, a practical and effective system of medicine, irrigation systems and agricultural production techniques, the first known ships,[3] Egyptian faience and glass technology, new forms of literature, and the earliest known peace treaty.[4] Contents [hide] 1 What type of thing is Ancient Egypt? 2 Geography of ancient Egypt 3 Government and politics of ancient Egypt 4 General history of ancient Egypt 5 Egyptology 6 Culture of ancient Egypt 7 Egyptian economy 8 Scholars 9 Publications about ancient Egypt 10 See also 11 References 12 External links What type of thing is Ancient Egypt?[edit] Ancient Egypt can be described as: an ancient civilization a Bronze Age civilization part of ancient history Geography of ancient Egypt[edit] Places[edit] See also: Architecture of ancient Egypt (below) Abu Gorab Abu Mena Abu Rawash Abu Simbel Abydos Alexandria Al Fayyum/Atef-Pehu Amarna/Akhetaten Aswan Asyut Avaris Beni Hasan Bubastis Buhen Busiris (Lower Egypt) Buto Dahshur Deir el-Bahri Deir el-Madinah Edfu El-Lahun Elephantine/Abu/Yebu Gebel el-Silsila Gerzeh Giza Gaza Heliopolis/Annu/Iunu Luxor Memphis/Ineb Hedj Rosetta Saqqara Tanis/Djanet Thebes/Niwt/Waset Thinis more... Government and politics of ancient Egypt[edit] Pharaohs[edit] Pharaoh An article about the history of the title "Pharaoh" with descriptions of the regalia, crowns and titles used. List of pharaohs This article contains a list of the pharaohs of Ancient Egypt, from the Early Dynastic Period before 3000 BCE through to the end of the Ptolemaic Dynasty Ancient Egyptian royal titulary Government Officials[edit] Vizier (Ancient Egypt) The vizier was the highest official in Ancient Egypt to serve the king, or pharaoh during the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms. Viceroy of Kush The Lower Nubian Kush was a province of Egypt from the 16th century BCE to eleventh century BCE. During this period it was ruled by a viceroy who reported directly to the Egyptian Pharaoh. Treasurer (Ancient Egypt) The treasurer was responsible for products coming to the royal palace. They were the main economical administrator of the royal belongings. Egyptian law[edit] Egyptian law Military of ancient Egypt[edit] Military of ancient Egypt Ancient egyptian warfare Chariotry in ancient Egypt Ancient Egyptian Navy General history of ancient Egypt[edit] History of ancient Egypt History of ancient Egypt, by period[edit] Prehistoric Egypt – The Prehistory of Egypt spans the period of earliest human settlement to the beginning of the Early Dynastic Period of Egypt in ca. 3100 BCE. Naqada I or Amratian culture - a cultural period in the history of predynastic Upper Egypt, which lasted approximately from 4000 to 3500 BCE. Naqada II or Gerzeh culture - The Gerzean is the second of three phases of the Naqada Culture, and so is called Naqada II. It begins circa 3500 BCE lasting through circa 3200 BCE. Naqada III or Semainean culture - Naqada III is the last phase of the Naqadan period of ancient Egyptian prehistory, dating approximately from 3200 to 3100 BCE. Early Dynastic Period of Egypt – The Archaic or Early Dynastic Period of Egypt immediately follows the unification of Lower and Upper Egypt c. 3100 BCE. It is generally taken to include: The First dynasty of Egypt The Second dynasty of Egypt Old Kingdom – The name given to the period in the 3rd millennium BCE when Egypt attained its first continuous peak of civilization in complexity and achievement – the first of three so-called "Kingdom" periods, which mark the high points of civilization in the lower Nile Valley. This time period includes: The Third dynasty of Egypt The Fourth dynasty of Egypt The Fifth dynasty of Egypt The Sixth dynasty of Egypt First Intermediate Period of Egypt – This period is often described as a “dark period” in ancient Egyptian history, spanning approximately 140 years after the end of the Old Kingdom from ca. 2181-2055 BCE [5] It included: The Seventh and eighth dynasties of Egypt The Ninth dynasty of Egypt The Tenth dynasty of Egypt Part of the Eleventh dynasty of Egypt Middle Kingdom of Egypt – The period in the history of ancient Egypt between 2055 BCE and 1650 BCE This period includes: Later part of the Eleventh dynasty of Egypt The Twelfth dynasty of Egypt The Thirteenth dynasty of Egypt The Fourteenth dynasty of Egypt Some writers include the Thirteenth and Fourteenth dynasties in the Second Intermediate Period. Second Intermediate Period of Egypt (Hyksos) – a period when Ancient Egypt fell into disarray for a second time, between the end of the Middle Kingdom and the start of the New Kingdom. It is best known as the period when the Hyksos made their appearance in Egypt and whose reign comprised The Fifteenth dynasty of Egypt The Sixteenth dynasty of Egypt. New Kingdom of Egypt – Also referred to as the Egyptian Empire is the period in ancient Egyptian history between the 16th century BCE and the 11th century BCE, covering: The Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt The Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt The Twentieth dynasty of Egypt. Third Intermediate Period – The time in Ancient Egypt from the death of Pharaoh Ramesses XI in 1070 BCE to the foundation of the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty by Psamtik I in 664 BCE This period includes: The Twenty-first dynasty of Egypt The Twenty-second dynasty of Egypt The Twenty-third dynasty of Egypt The Twenty-fourth dynasty of Egypt The Twenty-fifth dynasty of Egypt Late Period of ancient Egypt Main articles: History of Persian Egypt and History of Achaemenid Egypt The Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt, also known as the Saite Period, lasted from 672 BCEto 525 BCE. The Twenty-seventh dynasty of Egypt The First Persian Period (525 BC - 404 BC), this period saw Egypt conquered by an expansive Persian Empire under Cambyses. The Twenty-eighth dynasty of Egypt consisted of a single king, Amyrtaeus, prince of Sais, who rebelled against the Persians. This dynasty lasted 6 years, from 404 BC to 398 BC. The Twenty-ninth dynasty of Egypt ruled from Mendes, for the period from 398 BC to 380 BC. The Thirtieth Dynasty consisted of a series of three pharaohs ruling from 380 BC until their final defeat in 343 BC lead to the re-occupation by the Persians. Graeco-Roman Period – Arab Conquest – History of ancient Egypt, by region[edit] History of Alexandria History of ancient Egypt, by subject[edit] Military history of Ancient Egypt Battle of Kadesh Egyptology[edit] Egyptology – study of ancient Egyptian history, language, literature, religion, architecture and art from the 5th millennium BC until the end of its native religious practices in the 4th century AD. A practitioner of the discipline is an "Egyptologist". Egyptologists[edit] Egyptologist – a practitioner of egyptology Margaret Benson Alan Gardiner Zahi Hawass Salima Ikram William Matthew Flinders Petrie Alan Gardiner Auguste Mariette E. A. Wallis Budge Édouard Naville Edward R. Ayrton Bob Brier Edwin Smith (Egyptologist) Flinders Petrie Museums with ancient Egyptian exhibits[edit] Egypt[edit] Cairo Museum of Egyptian Antiquities Luxor Museum Luxor Mummification Museum France[edit] Louvre Germany[edit] Egyptian Museum of Berlin Italy[edit] Museo Egizio, Turin Palermo Archeological Museum United Kingdom[edit] British Museum Petrie Museum of Egyptology Ashmolean Museum United States of America[edit] Metropolitan Museum of Art Brooklyn Museum Culture of ancient Egypt[edit] Art of ancient Egypt – Amarna art – Dance in ancient Egypt Calendar – Cats in ancient Egypt Cuisine of ancient Egypt Ghosts in ancient Egyptian culture Homosexuality in ancient Egypt Pectoral (Ancient Egypt) Symbols of ancient Egypt Ankh Djed Wadjet Was scepter Uraeus Pschent Hedjet Deshret Atef Reserve head Technology of ancient Egypt – Chariotry in ancient Egypt Obelisk building technology in ancient Egypt Stone quarries of ancient Egypt Urban planning in ancient Egypt Ancient Egyptian technology Ancient Egyptian medicine Ancient Egyptian units of measurement Egyptian mathematics Ancient Egyptian multiplication Architecture of ancient Egypt[edit] Ancient Egyptian architecture Block statue (Egyptian) False door Step pyramid Buildings and structures[edit] Abu Simbel Benben Deir el-Bahri Colossi of Memnon Egyptian pyramids (List) Bent Pyramid Black Pyramid Giza pyramid complex Great pyramid of Giza Sphinx Karnak Temple Lighthouse of Alexandria Library of Alexandria Luxor temple Mastaba Ramesseum Serdab Religion in ancient Egypt[edit] Ancient Egyptian religion Death Ancient Egyptian burial customs Canopic jars Mummy Ancient Egyptian funerary texts Book of Caverns Book of Gates Book of the Dead Book of the Earth Book of the Netherworld Books of Breathing Mortuary temple Ancient Egyptian offering formula Ancient Egyptian retainer sacrifices Egyptian mythology Ancient Egyptian creation myths Egyptian pantheon Ennead Atum Shu Tefnut Geb Nut (Nuit) Osiris Isis Set Nephthys Ogdoad of Hermopolis Amun and Amunet Huh and Hauhet Kuk and Kauket Nun and Naunet Other major deities Amun Anubis Apep Apis Aten Bast Hathor Horus Khepri Chons Ma'at Min Neith Ptah Ra Sekhmet Sobek Thoth Wepwawet Deified concepts Chons Hapy Ma'at Min Renenutet Shai Hu Sia War deities Anhur Bast Maahes Pakhet Sekhmet Other deities Bes Chnum Seker Seshat Tawaret Montu Nepthys Bastet Ammit Bes Religious concepts Ba Ka Akh Duat Atenism Egyptian soul Ennead Ancient Egyptian language[edit] Ancient Egyptian language Stages of ancient Egyptian language Archaic Egyptian – before 2600 BC, the language of the Early Dynastic Period. Egyptian writing in the form of labels and signs has been dated to 3200 BC. Old Egyptian – 2686 BC – 2181 BC, the language of the Old Kingdom Middle Egyptian – 2055 BC – 1650 BC, characterized the Middle Kingdom (2055 BC – 1650 BC), but endured through the early 18th Dynasty until the Amarna Period(1353 BC), and continued on as a literary language into the 4th century AD. Late Egyptian – 1069 BC – 700 BC, characterized the Third Intermediate Period (1069 BC – 700 BC), but started earlier with the Amarna Period (1353 BC). Demotic – 7th century BC – 5th century AD, from the Late Period through Roman times Coptic – 1st century AD – 17th century AD, from early Roman times to early modern times Egyptian writing Hieroglyphs Hieratic Demotic Ancient Egyptian literature Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian Writing in Ancient Egypt Egyptian economy[edit] Foreign contacts of ancient Egypt Palace economy Scholars[edit] Egyptologists Margaret Benson Alan Gardiner Zahi Hawass Salima Ikram William Matthew Flinders Petrie Alan Gardiner Auguste Mariette E. A. Wallis Budge Édouard Naville Edward R. Ayrton Bob Brier Edwin Smith (Egyptologist) Flinders Petrie Publications about ancient Egypt[edit] Ancient Egypt (magazine) Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphs: A Practical Guide Hieroglyphics: The Writings of Ancient Egypt The Hieroglyphs of Ancient Egypt Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt Reading Egyptian Art: A Hieroglyphic Guide to Ancient Egyptian Painting and Sculpture See also[edit] Portal icon Ancient Egypt portal A list of ancient Egyptian palettes, ranging in the Naqada periods, 4th millennium BC, probably mostly from ~3500 to 3000 BC; some palettes may be from the later period of the earliest 3rd millennium BC. These cosmetic palettes come in numerous shapes and sizes, and were often found in tombs or graves. They were preceded by a period of palettes called rhomboidal palettes, unadorned, and without the cosmetic mixing circle found on some of the later Naqada period palettes. Contents [hide] 1 Alphabetical individual listing, (abbreviated) 2 List of ancient Egyptian Predynastic palettes 3 Shield-shape palettes 4 Zoomorphic palettes 5 Bird palettes 6 Miscellaneous palettes, fragments 7 Egyptian hieroglyphs and the palette's corpus 7.1 Gerzeh Palette 7.2 Min Palette 8 Galleries 8.1 Zoomorphic gallery 8.2 Miscellaneous pallettes 9 See also 10 References 11 External links Alphabetical individual listing, (abbreviated)[edit] Battlefield Palette "Two-bird heads palette (Brooklyn)"[1] "Bird palette (Louvre no XXX)" (bird-resting, on its feet)[2] Double-Bird Palette, ("Anchor Palette") Bull Palette El Ahaiwah Dog Palette Four Dogs Palette, Giraffes Palette Oxford Palette Minor Hierakonpolis Dogs Palette "Fish palette (Louvre dolphin type)"[3] New Kingdom: Fish-shaped palette-(Bulti-hieroglyph type); Adorned fish side/ with cosmetic side for daily use.[4] Gerzeh Palette Barbary Goat Palette Trussed-Goose Palette Guinea Fowl Palette Hunters Palette "Ka Palette (no. 1)" "Ka Palette (no. 2)" Libyan Palette Manshiyat Ezzat Palette Min Atnelope Palette Min Palette Narmer Palette "Turtle palette (no. 1)"-(Louvre) (See zoomorphic palette) Turtle Palette no. 2[5] List of ancient Egyptian Predynastic palettes[edit] Name Dimensions Location Notes + Topic Battlefield Palette Vultures Palette, etc. Full Height? 50 x 32 cm-(?) (20 x 13 in) British Museum Side A: war; Side B: peace ('Order vs Chaos') Bull Palette – Louvre Gerzeh Palette – Egyptian Museum, Cairo Hunters Palette 30.5 x 15 cm (12 x 6 in) British Museum (smaller fragment in Louvre) Libyan Palette (original, approximated: 70 x 25 cm) (ht x width) Egyptian Museum, Cairo (surviving dimensions: ~18.5 x ~21 cm, (7 x 8 in)) (ht x width) Min Palette El Amrah Palette – Narmer Palette Great Hierakonpolis Palette 64 x 42 cm (25 x 17 in) Egyptian Museum in Cairo[6] Unification of Southern Egypt, Delta Egypt, (Upper and Lower Egypt) Shield-shape palettes[edit] A list of shield-shaped palettes; the majority are vertically oriented. (The Hunters Palette is an example of a horizontally-oriented palette.) Name Dimensions Location <--> Form Notes + Topic "Two-bird heads palette (Brooklyn)"[7] 22.5 x 11.8 cm (8.8 x 4.6 in) Brooklyn Museum, USA V38 Unadorned palette, Shield-shaped, with 2-opposed-Bird-Heads Four Dogs Palette Giraffes Palette Louvre Palette – Louvre V38 Obverse:Four canines and other animals, w/cosmetic circle "Duck, trussed" Trussed-Goose Palette- G54 President Valdas Adamkus right chatting with Vice President Dick Cheney left See also List of Lithuanian rulers Mindaugas – the first and only King of Lithuania – Gediminas – the ruler of Lithuania – Algirdas – the ruler together with Kestutis of Lithuania – Kestutis – the ruler together with Algirdas of Lithuania – Vytautas – the ruler of Lithuania – together with Jogaila Jogaila – the ruler of Lithuania – from to together with Vytautas the king of Poland – Jonušas Radvila – the field hetman of Grand Duchy of Lithuania – Dalia Grybauskaite – current President of Lithuania since Valdas Adamkus – President of Lithuania till Jonas Basanavicius – "father" of the Act of Independence of Algirdas Brazauskas – the former First secretary of Central Committee of Communist Party of Lithuanian SSR the former president of Lithuania after and former Prime Minister of Lithuania Joe Fine – mayor of Marquette Michigan – Kazys Grinius – politician third President of Lithuania Mykolas Krupavicius – priest behind the land reform in interwar Lithuania Vytautas Landsbergis – politician professor leader of Sajudis the independence movement former speaker of Seimas member of European Parliament Stasys Lozoraitis – diplomat and leader of Lithuanian government in exile – Stasys Lozoraitis junior – politician diplomat succeeded his father as leader of Lithuanian government in exile – Antanas Merkys – the last Prime Minister of interwar Lithuania Rolandas Paksas – former President removed from the office after impeachment Justas Paleckis – journalist and politician puppet Prime Minister after Soviet occupation Kazimiera Prunskiene – the first female Prime Minister Mykolas Sleževicius – three times Prime Minister organized

– British Museum V38 Hunters Palette (horizontally– –oriented) 30.5 x 15 cm (12 x 6 in) British Museum N20 (smaller fragment in Louvre) Manshiyet el Ezzat Palette (Broken top) 23.5 to 27 x 12 cm, (9-10 x 5 in) (ht x width) V38 Discovered in a tomb, dated to Pharaoh Den's reign Cosmetic Circle: two confronted lions with intertwined necks, (as on the Narmer Palette). Min Palette El Amrah Palette – V38 The only adornment is a "typographic ligature" style combination of the archaic "Min symbol"– R23 with the hieroglyph for "crook-staff"– S39 (1/4 of palette face) Narmer Palette Great Hierakonpolis Palette 64 x 42 cm (25 x 17 in) Louvre V38 Unification of Southern Egypt, Delta Egypt, (Upper and Lower Egypt) Oxford Palette Minor Hierakonpolis Dogs Palette "Ashmolean Palette" "Two Dog Palette"[8] 42 x 22 cm (17 x 9 in) Ashmolean Museum, no. E3294 V38 greywacke, ca. 3150 BC 2-Lions, necks framing a mixing circle, and necks in wave-motion-(3-cycles); both lions are licking a gazelle, (as a newborn, or young)[9] Zoomorphic palettes[edit] A list of zoomorphic, or animal style Egyptian palettes. Name Dimensions Location Notes + Topic "Anchor Palette" ("Double Bird (Pelta) Palette") – Pelta? Anchor-shaped, double outward facing bird-heads Bird (Louvre) (a goose) – Louvre Naqada IId-IIIc "El Ahaiwah Dog Palette" – from El Ahaiwah- (El Ahaiwah) "Duck, trussed" Trussed-Goose Palette- G54 – British Museum portrayed later in hieroglyphs as G54, a 'trussed goose' Elephant palette (length-(horizontal): ~20.5 cm, (~8 in)[10] Egyptian Museum, Berlin Geese Palette (broken palette) 14.5 x 11.5 cm (6 x 5 in) British Museum, 32074 schist remainder piece has large, entire cosmetic circle, 2 small confronted geese below Barbary Goat palette – British Museum Turtle Palette {circular) – Louvre Circular shape with small turtle appendages Turtle Palette no. 2[11] {circular) – Egyptian Museum, Berlin Circular shape with small turtle appendages Bird palettes[edit] Name Dimensions Location <--> Form Notes + Topic Bird (Louvre) (a goose) – Louvre G42 Naqada IId-IIIc goose, seated-(at rest) "Duck, trussed" Trussed-Goose Palette- G54 – British Museum V38 G54 "Two-bird heads palette (Brooklyn)"[12] 22.5 x 11.8 cm (8.8 x 4.6 in) Brooklyn Museum, USA V38 H1 H1 Unadorned palette, Shield-shaped, with 2-opposed-Bird-Heads Guinea Fowl Palette[13] 28.5 x 19 cm (11.3 x 7.5 in) Brooklyn Museum, USA ? Guinea Fowl shape, Naqada II, (with small inlaid white eye) Miscellaneous palettes, fragments[edit] Name Dimensions Location <--> Form Notes + Topic Min Antelope Palette – N33 (Naqada IId-IIIc) circular with suspension hole, inscribed with antelope, 1/3 of face "Ka Palette (no. 1)" – ? Q3 D28 , Ka hieroglyph-shaped plate large vertical offering-style plate (see the Hotep-style plates, and the Ancient Egyptian offering formula)[14] "Ka Palette (no. 2)" – ? Q3 D28 , Ka hieroglyph-shaped plate plus Ankh, Papyrus, and U3S-staff S34 , M13 , S40 Egyptian hieroglyphs and the palette's corpus[edit] A list of the Egyptian hieroglyphs and the individual palettes. Gerzeh Palette[edit] The Gerzeh Palette, or "Hathor Palette", "Cow-Head Palette" has topics containing 5-stars, a pair of horns, and a stylized "head". The hieroglyphs are: N14 , F13 , and possibly a relation to Y8 , Hathor-sistrum, (the shape of the cow's head, as on the Narmer Palette), and R20 . Min Palette[edit] The only adornment is a "typographic ligature" style combination of the archaic "Min symbol"-- R23 with the hieroglyph for "crook-staff"-- S39 The 4th millennium BC saw major changes in human culture. It marked the beginning of the Bronze Age and the invention of writing, which played a major role in starting recorded history. Monte d'Accoddi is an archaeological site in northern Sardinia, Italy, located in the territory of Sassari near Porto Torres. 4th millennium BC. The city states of Sumer and the kingdom of Egypt were established and grew to prominence. Agriculture spread widely across Eurasia. World population in the course of the millennium doubled, approximately from 7 to 14 million people. Contents [hide] 1 Events 2 Cultures 3 Environmental changes 4 Significant people 5 Inventions, discoveries, introductions 6 Religion 7 Calendars and chronology 8 Centuries 9 References Events[edit] Mesopotamia is in the Uruk period, with emerging Sumerian hegemony and development of "proto-cuneiform" writing; base-60 mathematics, astronomy and astrology, civil law, complex hydrology, the sailboat, potter's wheel and wheel; the Chalcolithic proceeds into the Early Bronze Age. c. 4000 BC—First neolithic settlers in the island of Thera (Santorini), Greece, migrating probably from Minoan Crete. c. 4000 BC—Beaker from Susa (modern Shush, Iran) is made. It is now at Musée du Louvre, Paris. c. 4000 BC–2000 BC—People and animals, a detail of rock-shelter painting in Cogul, Lleida, Spain, are painted. It is now at Museo Arqueológico, Barcelona. c. 3900 BC—5.9 kiloyear event, one of the most intense aridification events during the Holocene. It ended the Neolithic Subpluvial and likely initiated the most recent desiccation of the Sahara desert, triggering migration to river valleys, such as from central North Africa to the Nile valley. Babylonian influence predominant in Mediterranean regions of Asia (to 2000 BC) In Colombia, circa 3600 BC, first rupestrian art Chiribiquete (Caquetá). 3600 BC—Construction of the Ggantija megalithic temple complex on the Island of Gozo, Malta: the world's oldest extant unburied free-standing structures, and the world's oldest religious structures. (See Göbekli Tepe for older, buried religious structures.) 3600–3200 BC—Construction of the first temple within the Mnajdra solar temple complex on Malta, containing "furniture" such as stone benches and tables, that set it apart from other European megalith constructions. 3600–3000 BC—Construction of the Ta' Hagrat and Kordin III temples on Malta. 3500 Metalcasting began in the Mohenjodaro area. c. 3500 BC—Figures of a man and a woman, from Cernavoda, Romania, are made. They are now at National Historical Museum, Bucharest. 3500–3400 BC—Jar with boat designs, from Hierakonpolis (today in the Brooklyn Museum) is created. Predynastic Egypt. 3500–2340 BC—First cities developed in Southern Mesopotamia. Inhabitants migrated from north. The cuneiform script proper emerges from pictographic proto-writing in the later 4th millennium. Mesopotamia's "proto-literate" period spans the 35th to 32nd centuries. The first documents unequivocally written in the Sumerian language date to the 31st century, found at Jemdet Nasr. 3300–2900 BC—Construction of the Newgrange solar observatory/passage tomb in Ireland. 3300—Bronze Age starts in Indus Valley (Harappa) c. 3300 BC—Ötzi the Iceman dies near the present-day border between Austria and Italy, only to be discovered in 1991 buried in a glacier of the Ötztal Alps. His cause of death is believed to be homicide. 3250–3000 BC—Construction of three megalithic temples at Tarxien, Malta. 3200–2500 BC—Construction of the Hagar Qim megalithic temple complex on Malta, featuring both solar and lunar alignments. c. 3150 BC—Predynastic period ended in Ancient Egypt. Early Dynastic (Archaic) period started (according to French Egyptologist Nicolas Grimal). The period includes 1st and 2nd Dynasties. c. 3150 BC a lesser Tollmann's hypothetical bolide event may have occurred. August 11, 3114 BC—start date of the Mayan calendar. February 18, 3102 B.C. - Beginning of Kali Yuga as per Vedas [1] c. 3100 BC—According to the legend, Menes unifies Upper and Lower Egypt, and a new capital is erected at Memphis. c. 3100 BC—Narmer Palette c. 3100–2600 BC—Neolithic settlement at Skara Brae in the Orkney Islands, Scotland, is inhabited. 3051 BC The oldest currently (2013) living non-clonal organism germinated in the Grove of the Ancients. First to Fourth dynasty of Kish in Mesopotamia. Discovery of silver. The beginnings of Iberian civilizations, arrival to the peninsula dating as far back as 4000 BC. c. 3000 BC—First pottery in Colombia at Puerto Hormiga (Magdalena), considered one of the first attempts of pottery of the New World. First settlement at Puerto Badel (Bolívar). Sumerian temple of Janna at Eridu erected. Temple at Al-Ubaid and tomb of Mes-Kalam-Dug built near Ur, Chaldea. Cultures[edit] The Neolithic This box: view talk edit ? Mesolithic Fertile Crescent Heavy Neolithic Shepherd Neolithic Trihedral Neolithic Pre-Pottery (A, B) Qaraoun culture Tahunian culture Yarmukian Culture Halaf culture Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period Ubaid culture Byblos Jericho Tell Aswad Çatalhöyük Jarmo Europe Boian culture Butmir culture Cernavoda culture Co?ofeni culture Cucuteni-Trypillian culture Dudesti culture Gornesti culture Gumelnita–Karanovo culture Hamangia culture Linear Pottery culture Malta Temples Petresti culture Sesklo culture Tisza culture Tiszapolgár culture Usatovo culture Varna culture Vinca culture Vucedol culture Neolithic Transylvania Neolithic Southeastern Europe China Peiligang culture Pengtoushan culture Beixin culture Cishan culture Dadiwan culture Houli culture Xinglongwa culture Xinle culture Zhaobaogou culture Hemudu culture Daxi culture Majiabang culture Yangshao culture Hongshan culture Dawenkou culture Songze culture Liangzhu culture Majiayao culture Qujialing culture Longshan culture Baodun culture Shijiahe culture Yueshi culture Tibet South Asia Mehrgarh farming, animal husbandry pottery, metallurgy, wheel circular ditches, henges, megaliths Neolithic religion ? Chalcolithic Mesopotamia Uruk period (protohistoric Sumer) 4100 BC–3100 BC Proto-Elamite from 3200 BC Urkesh (northern Syria) founded during the fourth millennium BC possibly by the Hurrians Neolithic Europe and Western Eurasia Crete: Rise of Minoan civilization. The Yamna culture ("Kurgan culture"), succeeding the Sredny Stog culture is the locus of the Proto-Indo-Europeans according to the Kurgan hypothesis The Pit Grave ("Kurgan culture"), succeeding the Sredny Stog culture is the locus of the Proto-Indo-Europeans according to the Paleolithic Continuity Theory The Maykop culture of the Caucasus (c. 3700 BC to 3000 BC), contemporary to the Kurgan culture, is a candidate for the origin of bronze production and thus the Bronze Age. Vinca culture Afanasevo 3500 BC—2500 BC, Siberia, Mongolia, Xinjiang, Kazakhstan - late copper and early Bronze Age. Yamna/Kurgan 3500 BC-2300 BC, Pontic-Caspian (east of Black Sea). Kura-Araxes 3400 BC–2000 BC - earliest evidence found on the Ararat plain Europe The Trypillian culture has cities with 15,000 citizens, eastern Europe, 5500 BC–2750 BC. The Funnelbeaker culture, Scandinavia, 4000 BC–2700 BC, originated in southern parts of Europe and slowly advanced up through today's Uppland. Indian subcontinent Indus Valley Civilization Mehrgarh III–VI Africa Naqada culture on the Nile, 4000 BC–3000 BC. First hieroglyphs appear thus far around 3500 BC as found on labels in a ruler's tomb at Abydos. Asia Neolithic Chinese settlements. They produced silk and pottery (chiefly the Yangshao and the Lungshan cultures), wore hemp clothing, and domesticated pigs and dogs. Vietnamese Bronze Age culture. The Ð?ng Ð?u Culture, 4000 BC–2500 BC, produced many wealthy bronze objects. c. 4000 BC–3000 BC—Austronesian peoples reach Formosa (Taiwan) having crossed 150 km from China using advanced maritime technology.[citation needed.] Environmental changes[edit] Holocene Epoch This box: view talk edit ? Pleistocene Holocene/Anthropocene Preboreal (10.3–9 ka) Boreal (9–7.5 ka) Atlantic (7.5–5 ka) Subboreal (5–2.5 ka) Subatlantic (2.5 ka–present) Main article: Atlantic (period) Based on studies by glaciologist Lonnie Thompson, professor at Ohio State University and researcher with the Byrd Polar Research Center, a number of indicators shows there was a global change in climate 5,200 years ago, probably due to a drop in solar energy output as hypothesized by Ohio State University.[2] Plants buried in the Quelccaya Ice Cap in the Peruvian Andes demonstrate the climate had shifted suddenly and severely to capture the plants and preserve them until now.[3] A man trapped in an Alpine glacier ("Ötzi the Iceman") is frozen until his discovery in 1991.[4] Tree rings from Ireland and England show this was their driest period.[4] Ice core records showing the ratio of two oxygen isotopes retrieved from the ice fields atop Africa's Mount Kilimanjaro, a proxy for atmospheric temperature at the time snow fell.[4] Major changes in plant pollen uncovered from lakebed cores in South America.[4] Record lowest levels of methane retrieved from ice cores from Greenland and Antarctica.[4] End of the Neolithic Subpluvial, start of desertification of Sahara (35th century BC). North Africa shifts from a habitable region to a barren desert.[4] Significant people[edit] Ötzi the Iceman lived c. 3300 BC. Predynastic pharaohs Tiu, Thesh, Hsekiu, Wazner, Ro, Serket, Narmer Inventions, discoveries, introductions[edit] Sumerian Cuneiform Script c. 4000 BC—potter's wheel in Sumer.[5] 4000 BC—Susa is a center of pottery production. c. 4000 BC—Horses are domesticated in the western Eurasian Steppes in what is now northern Kazakhstan (see the Botai culture). 3500 BC—2340 BC; Sumer: wheeled carts, potter's wheel, White Temple ziggurat, bronze tools and weapons. c. 3250 BC—potter's wheel appears in Ancient Near East. c. 3138 BC Ljubljana Marshes Wheel is a wooden wheel that was found in the Ljubljana Marshes in Slovenia.[6] Radiocarbon dating showed that it is approximately 5,150 years old, which makes it the oldest wooden wheel yet discovered. 3000 BC—Tin is in use in Mesopotamia soon after this time.[7] Beginnings of urbanisation in Mesopotamia in Sumer and Egypt. First writings in the cities of Uruk and Susa (cuneiform writings). Hieroglyphs in Egypt. Kurgan culture of what is now Southern Russia and Ukraine; possibly the first domestication of the horse. Sails used in the Nile. Construction in England of the Sweet Track, the World's first known engineered roadway. Drainage and Sewage collection and disposal created in the Indus Valley civilization. Dams, canals, stone sculptures using inclined plane and lever in Sumer. Copper was in use, both as tools and weapons. Bronze was in use, specifically by the Maykop culture. Mastabas, the predecessors of the Egyptian pyramids. The earliest phase of the Stonehenge monument (a circular earth bank and ditch) dates to c. 3100 BC. The Céide Fields in Ireland, arguably the oldest field system in world, are developed. Sumerian writing, done on clay tablets, shows about 2,000 pictographic signs White painted pottery in Egypt and southeastern Europe Harps and flutes played in Egypt Copper alloys used by Egyptians and Sumerians; smelting of gold and silver known. Lyres and double clarinets (arghul, mijwiz) played in Egypt Earliest known numerals in Egypt Seder Olam Zutta (Hebrew: ??? ???? ????) is an anonymous chronicle from 804 CE, called "Zu?ta" (= "smaller," or "younger") to distinguish it from the older Seder 'Olam Rabbah. This work is based upon, and to a certain extent completes and continues, the older chronicle. It consists of two main parts: the first, comprising about three-fifths of the whole, deals with the chronology of the 50 generations from Adam to Jehoiakim (who, according to this chronicle, was the father of the Babylonian exilarch), the second deals with 39 generations of exilarchs, beginning with Jehoiachin. Contents [hide] 1 Genealogy of the Exilarchs 2 The Descendants of Jehoiachin 3 Time of redaction 4 references 5 Jewish Encyclopedia bibliography 6 External links Genealogy of the Exilarchs[edit] It is apparent that the object of this work was to show that the Babylonian exilarchs were direct descendants of David. After a short introduction, taken from the Seder 'Olam Rabbah, giving the general chronology from Adam to the destruction of the Second Temple—a period of 3,828 years—and stating the number of years which elapsed between the most important events, such as between the Flood and the confusion of tongues, etc., the chronology recommences with Adam. The Seder 'Olam Zu?a is more complete at this point than the larger work, as it gives the duration of the generations between Adam and Abraham, which is lacking in the Seder 'Olam Rabbah. It gives also the lifetime of each of Jacob's twelve sons as recorded by tradition. Otherwise it merely enumerates the generations. From David onward it gives the names of the high priests and prophets who lived in the time of each king. Thus, for instance, David had Abiathar as high priest, and Nathan and Gad as prophets; Solomon, who ascended the throne at the age of three, had Zadok for high priest, and Jonathan, Iddo, and Ahijah as prophets. In this way it completes the list of the high priests enumerated in 1 Chronicles 5:34 et seq. Shallum (verses 38-39) officiated in the time of Amon, and between the former and Azariah, who served in the time of Rehoboam, there were 12 high priests. But in I Chron. (l.c.) only five high priests are enumerated, whose names are not found at all among those given by the Seder 'Olam Zu?a. The author of the work divided these 50 generations into five series, each of 10 generations, the last of each series being, respectively, Noah, Abraham, Boaz, Ahaziah, and Jehoiakim. The Descendants of Jehoiachin[edit] The second part of the work begins with the statement that Jehoiachin, who reigned only three months and ten days, was carried into captivity by Nebuchadnezzar (comp. 2 Kings 24:8; 2 Chronicles 36:9). He was afterward given high rank by Evil-merodach, thus becoming the first prince of the Captivity. Correcting the somewhat confused genealogical account of 1 Chronicles 3:17-19, the Seder 'Olam Zu?a declares that Jehoiachin had four sons, the eldest of whom was Shealtiel, who succeeded his father. It is worthwhile noting that, according to this chronicle, Darius conquered Babylon after it had been supreme for 70 years, beginning with the reign of Nebuchadnezzar, and 52 years after the destruction of the First Temple. Zerubbabel, Shealtiel's son, who departed for Jerusalem in the first year of the reign of Cyrus, returned to Babylon after the Temple and the walls of Jerusalem had been rebuilt by Ezra, and succeeded his father in the exilarchate. Then the chronicle enumerates the successive exilarchs, the account being in part taken from 1 Chronicles 3:16 et seq., but differing greatly from the text of the latter. In fact, the first, 13th, 16th, 18th, and 19th exilarchs (the last one being Shaphat, the father of Anan[disambiguation needed]), whose lives extended over a period of more than 600 years, are mentioned in I Chron. (l.c.) not as immediate successors, but as related individuals, and in contemporaneous groups. Sometimes, too, the father in I Chronicles is the son in the Seder 'Olam Zu?a. With the deaths of Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi—more exactly, in the 52nd year of the Persian domination, or year 3442 of the creation—prophecy ceased and the period of the wise men ("?akamim") began. From Hananiah (Zerubbabel's grandson) onward every exilarch is indicated as having been guided by wise men. The names of the kings that reigned over Judea from Alexander the Great to Roman Palaestina during the destruction of the Second Temple are given. Like the Seder 'Olam Rabbah, this chronicle gives the reigns of the Maccabees and the Herods as covering 103 years each. It may be stated that the Herodian dynasty consisted, according to the Seder 'Olam Zu?a, of three kings only—Herod, Agrippa, and Monobaz; at the end of Monobaz's reign and during the time of the 11th exilarch, Shechaniah, the son of Shemaiah, the Romans destroyed the Temple. Further, from Nahum, the 17th exilarch, the names are given of the wise men, probably the chiefs of the academy, who assisted the exilarchs. With Rab Huna, 29th exilarch, the direct male line of descent from David terminated. The exilarchs following are stated to have been descendants of Rab Huna through his daughter, the wife of R. Hananiah, the head of the yeshibah, whose marriage is related at length. After having stated that Mar-Zutra II, the 13th exilarch, was executed in the year 502 C.E., and that his posthumous son Mar-Zutra III betook himself, in the year 4280 of the Creation (= 520 C.E.), to Palaestina Prima, where he became chief of the Sanhedrin, the chronicle mentions eight succeeding exilarchs, the last one being Rab ?a?ub, son of Rab Phinehas. Apart from certain misstatements, this part contains many authenticated facts, and is therefore considered by modern scholars as a document of historical value. It may be seen that the lives of 31 exilarchs covered a period of more than 900 years, averaging three exilarchs to a century. This might help to determine the time at which the Seder 'Olam Zu?a was written, for the 39th exilarch, according to this estimate, would have lived at the end of the 8th century. The additions of the copyists, however, render this task difficult. In a fragment of a chronicle published by A. Neubauer (M. J. C. i. 197) there is a sentence, regarding the reign of John Hyrcanus, which is found in the Seder 'Olam Zu?a but is referred to the "Seder 'Olam de-Rabbanan." Lazarus (Brüll's Jahrb. x. 8) supposes that after "de-Rabbanan" the word "Sabura'e" should be inserted, as a chronicle under the title "Seder 'Olam de-Rabbanan Sabura'e" is mentioned by Baruch b. Isaac of Worms (Sefer ha-Terumah, Hilkot Abodah Zarah, § 135) and by Moses of Coucy (Sefer Mi?wot Gadol, ii. 866), in connection with the statement that the year 4564 (= 804 C.E.) was a Sabbatical year. This induced many modern scholars, as H. Grätz, Steinschneider, and Zunz, to identify the "Seder 'Olam Zu?a" with the "Seder 'Olam de Rabbanan Sabura'e." Time of redaction[edit] Adolf Neubauer (11 March 1831 in Bittse (a.k.a. Nagybiccse, German: Bitsch, Slovak: Bytca), Upper Hungary, Kingdom of Hungary, Austrian Empire – 6 April 1907, London) was sublibrarian at the Bodleian Library and reader in Rabbinic Hebrew at Oxford University. Born in Bittse, Hungary, he received a thorough education in rabbinical literature. In 1850 he obtained a position at the Austrian Consulate in Jerusalem. At this time he published articles about the situation of the city's Jewish population, which aroused the anger of some leaders of that community, with whom he became involved in a prolonged controversy. In 1857 he moved to Paris where he continued his studies of Judaism and started producing scientific publications. His earliest contributions were made to the Allgemeine Zeitung des Judenthums and the Journal Asiatique (Dec., 1861). Contents [hide] 1 Works 2 References 3 Further reading Works in the public domain are those whose intellectual property rights have expired,[1] have been forfeited,[2] or are inapplicable. For example, the works of Shakespeare and Beethoven, most of the early silent films, the formulae of Newtonian physics, the Serpent encryption algorithm and powered flight are all now in the public domain.[1] The term is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, in which case use of the work is referred to as "under license" or "with permission". As rights are country-based and vary, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a country-by-country basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required, creates public domain status for a work in that country. Contents [hide] 1 History 2 Definition 3 Value 4 Relationship with derivative works 5 Perpetual copyright 6 Application to copyrightable works 6.1 Works not covered by copyright law 6.2 Expiration of copyright 6.3 Government works 6.4 Dedicating works to the public domain 7 Patents 8 Trademarks 9 See also 10 References 11 External links History[edit] Although the term "public domain" did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the concept "can be traced back to the ancient Roman Law, as a preset system included in the property right system."[3] The Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined "many things that cannot be privately owned"[3] as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as things not yet appropriated.[4] The term res commune was defined as "things that could be commonly enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight and ocean."[3] The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, and the term res universitatis meant things that were owned by the municipalities of Rome.[3] When looking at the public domain from a historical perspective, one could say the construction of the idea of "public domain" sprouted from the concepts of res commune, res publicae, and res universitatis in early Roman Law.[3] When the first early copyright law was first established in Britain with the Statute of Anne in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by British and French jurists in the eighteenth century. Instead of "public domain" they used terms such as publici juris or propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law.[5] The phrase "fall in the public domain" can be traced to mid-nineteenth century France to describe the end of copyright term. The French poet Alfred de Vigny equated the expiration of copyright with a work falling "into the sink hole of the public domain"[6] and if the public domain receives any attention from intellectual property lawyers it is still treated as little more than that which is left when intellectual property rights, such as copyright, patents, and trademarks, expire or are abandoned.[7] In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a "little coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain."[8] Because copyright law is different from country to country, Pamela Samuelson has described the public domain as being "different sizes at different times in different countries".[9] Definition[edit] Newton's own copy of his Principia, with hand-written corrections for the second edition Definitions of the boundaries of the public domain in relation to copyright, or intellectual property more generally, regard the public domain as a negative space, that is, it consists of works that are no longer in copyright term or were never protected by copyright law.[10] According to James Boyle this definition underlines common usage of the term public domain and equates the public domain to public property and works in copyright to private property. However, the usage of the term public domain can be more granular, including for example uses of works in copyright permitted by copyright exceptions. Such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to fair use rights and limitation on ownership.[1] A conceptual definition comes from Lange, who focused on what the public domain should be: "it should be a place of sanctuary for individual creative expression, a sanctuary conferring affirmative protection against the forces of private appropriation that threatened such expression".[10] Patterson and Lindberg described the public domain not as a "territory", but rather as a concept: "[T]here are certain materials – the air we breathe, sunlight, rain, space, life, creations, thoughts, feelings, ideas, words, numbers – `not subject to private ownership. The materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival."[11] The term public domain may also be interchangeably used with other imprecise and/or undefined terms such as the "public sphere" or "commons", including concepts such as "commons of the mind", the "intellectual commons", and the "information commons".[7] Value[edit] Pamela Samuelson has identified eight "values" that can arise from information and works in the public domain.[12]:22 Possible values include: Building blocks for the creation of new knowledge, examples include data, facts, ideas, theories, and scientific principle. Access to cultural heritage through information resources such as ancient Greek texts and Mozart’s symphonies. Promoting education, through the spread of information, ideas, and scientific principles. Enabling follow-on innovation, through for example expired patents and copyright. Enabling low cost access to information without the need to locate the owner or negotiate rights clearance and pay royalties, through for example expired copyrighted works or patents, and non-original data compilation.[13] Promoting public health and safety, through information and scientific principles. Promoting the democratic process and values, through news, laws, regulation, and judicial opinion. Enabling competitive imitation, through for example expired patents and copyright, or publicly disclosed technologies that do not qualify for patent protection.[12]:22 Relationship with derivative works[edit] L.H.O.O.Q. (1919). Derivative work by the Dadaist Marcel Duchamp based on the Mona Lisa. Derivative works include translations, musical arrangements, and dramatizations of a work, as well as other forms of transformation or adaptation.[14] Copyrighted works may not be used for derivative works without permission from the copyright owner,[15] while public domain works can be freely used for derivative works without permission.[16][17] Artworks that are public domain may also be reproduced photographically or artistically or used as the basis of new, interpretive works.[18] Once works enter into the public domain, derivative works such as adaptations in book and film may increase noticeably, as happened with Frances Hodgson Burnett's novel The Secret Garden, which became public domain in 1987.[19] By 1999, the plays of Shakespeare, all public domain, had been used in more than 420 feature-length films.[20] In addition to straightforward adaptation, they have been used as the launching point for transformative retellings such as Tom Stoppard's Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead and Troma Entertainment's Tromeo and Juliet.[21][22][23] Marcel Duchamp's L.H.O.O.Q. is a derivative of Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa, one of thousands of derivative works based on the public domain painting.[16] Perpetual copyright[edit] Main article: Perpetual copyright Some works may never fully lapse into the public domain. A perpetual crown copyright is held for the Authorized King James Version of the Bible in the UK.[24] While the copyright of the play Peter Pan, or the Boy Who Wouldn't Grow Up by J. M. Barrie has expired in the United Kingdom, it was granted a special exception under the Copyright, Designs, and Patents Act 1988 (Schedule 6)[25] that requires royalties to be paid for performances within the UK, so long as Great Ormond Street Hospital (to whom Barrie gave the rights) continues to exist. Application to copyrightable works[edit] Works not covered by copyright law[edit] The underlying idea that is expressed or manifested in the creation of a work generally cannot be the subject of copyright law (see idea-expression divide). Mathematical formulae will therefore generally form part of the public domain, to the extent that their expression in the form of software is not covered by copyright. Works created before the existence of copyright and patent laws also form part of the public domain. For example, the Bible and the inventions of Archimedes are in the public domain, but copyright may exist in translations or new formulations of these works. Expiration of copyright[edit] Determination of whether a copyright has expired depends on an examination of the copyright in its "source country". In the United States, determining whether a work has entered the public domain or is still under copyright can be quite complex, primarily because copyright terms have been extended multiple times and in different ways—shifting over the course of the 20th century from a fixed-term based on first publication, with a possible renewal term, to a term extending to fifty, then seventy, years after the death of the author. The claim that "pre-1923 works are in the public domain" is correct only for published works; unpublished works are under federal copyright for at least the life of the author plus 70 years. In most other countries that are signatories to the Berne Convention, copyright term is based on the life of the author, and extends to 50 or 70 years beyond the death of the author. (See List of countries' copyright length.) Legal traditions differ on whether a work in the public domain can have its copyright restored. In the European Union, the Copyright Duration Directive was applied retroactively, restoring and extending the terms of copyright on material previously in the public domain. Term extensions by the U.S. and Australia generally have not removed works from the public domain, but rather delayed the addition of works to it. However, the United States moved away from that tradition with the Uruguay Round Agreements Act, which removed from the public domain many foreign-sourced works that had previously not been in copyright in the US for failure to comply with US-based formalities requirements. Consequently, in the US, foreign-sourced works and US-sourced works are now treated differently, with foreign-sourced works remaining under copyright regardless of compliance with formalities, while domestically-sourced works may be in the public domain if they failed to comply with then-existing formalities requirements—a situation described as odd by some scholars, and unfair by some US-based rightsholders.[26] Government works[edit] Works of the United States Government and various other governments are excluded from copyright law and may therefore be considered to be in the public domain in their respective countries.[27] In the United States, when copyrighted material is enacted into the law, it enters the public domain. Thus, e.g., the building codes, when enacted, are in the public domain.[28] They may also be in the public domain in other countries as well. "It is axiomatic that material in the public domain is not protected by copyright, even when incorporated into a copyrighted work."[29] Dedicating works to the public domain[edit] Few if any legal systems have a process for reliably donating works to the public domain. They may even effectively prohibit any attempt by copyright owners to surrender rights automatically conferred by law, particularly moral rights.[30] An alternative is for copyright holders to issue a licence which irrevocably grants as many rights as possible to the general public, e.g., the CC0 licence from Creative Commons.[30] Patents[edit] Main article: Term of patent In most countries the term or rights for patents is 20 years, after which the invention becomes part of the public domain. In the United States, the contents of patents are considered valid and enforceable for twenty years from the date of filing within the United States or twenty years from the earliest date of filing if under 35 USC 120, 121, or 365(c).[31] However, the text and any illustration within a patent, provided the illustrations are essentially line drawings and do not in any substantive way reflect the "personality" of the person drawing them, are not subject to copyright protection.[32] This is separate from the patent rights just mentioned. Trademarks[edit] A trademark registration may remain in force indefinitely, or expire without specific regard to its age. For a trademark registration to remain valid, the owner must continue to use it. In some circumstances, such as disuse, failure to assert trademark rights, or common usage by the public without regard for its intended use, it could become generic, and therefore part of the public domain. Because trademarks are registered with governments, some countries or trademark registries may recognize a mark, while others may have determined that it is generic and not allowable as a trademark in that registry. For example, the drug "acetylsalicylic acid" (2-acetoxybenzoic acid) is better known as aspirin in the United States—a generic term. In Canada, however, "Aspirin", with an upper case A, is still a trademark of the German company Bayer, while aspirin, with a lower case "a" is not. Bayer lost the trademark in the United States, the UK and France after World War I, as part of the Treaty of Versailles. So many copy-cat products entered the marketplace during the war that it was deemed generic just three years later.[33] Bayer also lost the trademark for "Heroin",[where?] which it trademarked a year before it trademarked Aspirin.[citation needed] Although Hormel resigned itself to genericide,[34] it has fought attempts by other companies to register "spam" as a trademark in relation to computer products.[35] See also[edit] Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Copyfraud refers to false copyright claims by individuals or institutions with respect to content that is in the public domain. Such claims are wrongful because material that is not copyrighted is free for all to use, modify and reproduce. Copyfraud also includes overreaching claims by publishers and others, as where a legitimate copyright owner knowingly, or with constructive knowledge, claims rights beyond what the law allows. The term "copyfraud" was coined by Jason Mazzone, a Professor of Law at the University of Illinois.[2] Because copyfraud carries little or no oversight by authorities and few legal consequences, it exists on a massive scale, with millions of works in the public domain falsely labelled as copyrighted. Payments are therefore unnecessarily made by businesses and individuals for licensing fees. Mazzone states that copyfraud stifles valid reproduction of free material, discourages innovation and undermines free speech rights.[1]:1028[3] Other legal scholars have suggested public and private remedies, and a few cases have been brought involving copyfraud. Contents [hide] 1 Definition 2 Analysis 3 Notable cases 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Definition[edit] Mazzone describes copyfraud as: Fair use is a legal doctrine that permits limited use of copyrighted material without acquiring permission from the rights holders. It is one type of limitation and exception to the exclusive rights copyright law grants to the author of a creative work. Examples of fair use in United States copyright law include commentary, search engines, criticism, parody, news reporting, research, teaching, library archiving and scholarship. It provides for the legal, unlicensed citation or incorporation of copyrighted material in another author's work under a four-factor balancing test. The term "fair use" originated in the United States.[1] A similar-sounding principle, fair dealing, exists in some other common law jurisdictions but in fact it is more similar in principle to the enumerated exceptions found under civil law systems. Civil law jurisdictions have other limitations and exceptions to copyright. Fair use is one of the traditional safety valves intended to balance the interests of copyright holders with the public interest in the wider distribution and use of creative works by allowing certain limited uses that might otherwise be considered infringement. Contents [hide] 1 History 2 U.S. fair use factors 2.1 1. Purpose and character of the use 2.2 2. Nature of the copyrighted work 2.3 3. Amount and substantiality 2.4 4. Effect upon work's value 2.5 Other factors 3 U.S. fair use procedure and practice 4 Fair use in particular areas 4.1 Fair use and text and data mining 4.2 Fair use and parody 4.3 Fair use on the Internet 4.4 Fair use and reverse engineering 4.5 Fair use and file sharing 4.6 Fair use and professional communities 4.7 Fair use and music sampling 5 Influence internationally 5.1 Fair use 5.1.1 Israel 5.1.2 Poland 5.1.3 South Korea 5.2 Fair dealing 5.2.1 Canada 5.2.2 United Kingdom 6 Policy arguments about fair use 6.1 The economic benefit of fair use 7 Fair Use Week 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links History[edit] The 1709 Statute of Anne, an act of the Parliament of Great Britain, created copyright law to replace a system of private ordering enforced by the Stationers' Company. The Statute of Anne did not provide for legal unauthorized use of material protected by copyright. In Gyles v Wilcox,[2] the Court of Chancery established the doctrine of "fair abridgement," which permitted unauthorized abridgement of copyrighted works under certain circumstances. Over time, this doctrine evolved into the modern concepts of fair use and fair dealing. Fair use was a common-law doctrine in the U.S. until it was incorporated into the Copyright Act of 1976, 17 U.S.C. § 107. In response to perceived over-expansion of copyrights, several electronic civil liberties and free expression organizations began in the 1990s to add fair use cases to their dockets and concerns. These include the Electronic Frontier Foundation ("EFF"), the American Civil Liberties Union, the National Coalition Against Censorship, the American Library Association, numerous clinical programs at law schools, and others. The "Chilling Effects" archive was established in 2002 as a coalition of several law school clinics and the EFF to document the use of cease and desist letters. Most recently, in 2006, Stanford University began an initiative called "The Fair Use Project" (FUP) to help artists, particularly filmmakers, fight lawsuits brought against them by large corporations. U.S. fair use factors[edit] 17 U.S.C. § 107 Notwithstanding the provisions of sections 17 U.S.C. § 106 and 17 U.S.C. § 106A, the fair use of a copyrighted work, including such use by reproduction in copies or phonorecords or by any other means specified by that section, for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching (including multiple copies for classroom use), scholarship, or research, is not an infringement of copyright. In determining whether the use made of a work in any particular case is a fair use the factors to be considered shall include: the purpose and character of the use, including whether such use is of a commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes; the nature of the copyrighted work; the amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to the copyrighted work as a whole; and the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work. The fact that a work is unpublished shall not itself bar a finding of fair use if such finding is made upon consideration of all the above factors.[3] Oil portrait of Joseph Story Joseph Story wrote the opinion in Folsom v. Marsh. The four factors of analysis for fair use set forth above derive from the opinion of Joseph Story in Folsom v. Marsh,[1] in which the defendant had copied 353 pages from the plaintiff's 12-volume biography of George Washington in order to produce a separate two-volume work of his own.[4] The court rejected the defendant's fair use defense with the following explanation: [A] reviewer may fairly cite largely from the original work, if his design be really and truly to use the passages for the purposes of fair and reasonable criticism. On the other hand, it is as clear, that if he thus cites the most important parts of the work, with a view, not to criticize, but to supersede the use of the original work, and substitute the review for it, such a use will be deemed in law a piracy ... In short, we must often ... look to the nature and objects of the selections made, the quantity and value of the materials used, and the degree in which the use may prejudice the sale, or diminish the profits, or supersede the objects, of the original work. The statutory fair use factors quoted above come from the Copyright Act of 1976, which is codified at 17 U.S.C. § 107. They were intended by Congress to restate, but not replace, the prior judge-made law. As Judge Pierre N. Leval has written, the statute does not "define or explain [fair use's] contours or objectives." While it "leav[es] open the possibility that other factors may bear on the question, the statute identifies none."[5] That is, courts are entitled to consider other factors in addition to the four statutory factors. 1. Purpose and character of the use[edit] The first factor is "the purpose and character of the use, including whether such use is of a commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes." To justify the use as fair, one must demonstrate how it either advances knowledge or the progress of the arts through the addition of something new. A key consideration in recent fair use cases is the extent to which the use is transformative. In the 1994 decision Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music Inc,[6] the Supreme Court held that when the purpose of the use is transformative, this makes the first factor more likely to favor fair use.[7] Before the Campbell decision, Judge Pierre Leval argued that transformativeness is central to the fair use analysis in his 1990 article, Toward a Fair Use Standard.[5] Blanch v. Koons is another example of a fair use case that focused on transformativeness. In 2006, Jeff Koons used a photograph taken by commercial photographer Andrea Blanch in a collage painting.[8] He appropriated a central portion of an advertisement she had been commissioned to shoot for a magazine. Koons prevailed in part because his use was found transformative under the first fair use factor. The Campbell case also addressed the subfactor mentioned in the quotation above, "whether such use is of a commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes." In an earlier case, Sony Corp. of America v. Universal City Studios, Inc., the Supreme Court had stated that "every commercial use of copyrighted material is presumptively . . . unfair." In Campbell, the court clarified that this is not a "hard evidentiary presumption" and that even the tendency that commercial purpose will "weigh against a finding of fair use . . . will vary with the context." The Campbell court held that hip-hop group 2 Live Crew's parody of the song "Oh, Pretty Woman" was fair use, even though the parody was sold for profit. Thus, having a commercial purpose does not preclude a use from being found fair, even though it makes it less likely.[9] Likewise, the noncommercial purpose of a use makes it more likely to be found a fair use, but it does not make it a fair use automatically.[9] For instance, in L.A. Times v. Free Republic, the court found that the noncommercial use of LA Times content by the Free Republic Web site was not fair use, since it allowed the public to obtain material at no cost that they would otherwise pay for. Another factor is whether the use fulfills any of the "preamble purposes" also mentioned in the legislation above, as these have been interpreted as paradigmatically "transformative".[citation needed] 2. Nature of the copyrighted work[edit] Signature of J.D. Salinger in 1950 The unpublished nature of J. D. Salinger's letters was a key issue in the court's analysis of the second fair use factor in Salinger v. Random House. Although the Supreme Court has ruled that the availability of copyright protection should not depend on the artistic quality or merit of a work, fair use analyses consider certain aspects of the work to be relevant, such as whether it is fictional or non-fictional.[10] To prevent the private ownership of work that rightfully belongs in the public domain, facts and ideas are not protected by copyright—only their particular expression or fixation merits such protection. On the other hand, the social usefulness of freely available information can weigh against the appropriateness of copyright for certain fixations. The Zapruder film of the assassination of President Kennedy, for example, was purchased and copyrighted by Time magazine. Yet its copyright was not upheld, in the name of the public interest, when Time tried to enjoin the reproduction of stills from the film in a history book on the subject in Time Inc v. Bernard Geis Associates.[11] In the decisions of the Second Circuit in Salinger v. Random House[12] and in New Era Publications Int'l v. Henry Holt & Co,[13] the aspect of whether the copied work has been previously published was considered crucial, assuming the right of the original author to control the circumstances of the publication of his work or preference not to publish at all. However, Judge Pierre N. Leval views this importation of certain aspects of France's droit moral d'artiste (moral rights of the artist) into American copyright law as "bizarre and contradictory" because it sometimes grants greater protection to works that were created for private purposes that have little to do with the public goals of copyright law, than to those works that copyright was initially conceived to protect.[5] This is not to claim that unpublished works, or, more specifically, works not intended for publication, do not deserve legal protection, but that any such protection should come from laws about privacy, rather than laws about copyright. The statutory fair use provision was amended in response to these concerns by adding a final sentence: "The fact that a work is unpublished shall not itself bar a finding of fair use if such finding is made upon consideration of all the above factors." 3. Amount and substantiality[edit] Screenshot of Google Image Search results page The Ninth Circuit has held that the use of thumbnails in image search engines is fair use. The third factor assesses the amount and substantiality of the copyrighted work that has been used. In general, the less that is used in relation to the whole, the more likely the use will be considered fair. Using most or all of a work does not bar a finding of fair use. It simply makes the third factor less favorable to the defendant. For instance, in Sony Corp. of America v. Universal City Studios, Inc. copying entire television programs for private viewing was upheld as fair use, at least when the copying is done for the purposes of time-shifting. In Kelly v. Arriba Soft Corporation, the Ninth Circuit held that copying an entire photo to use as a thumbnail in online search results did not even weigh against fair use, "if the secondary user only copies as much as is necessary for his or her intended use". However, even the use of a small percentage of a work can make the third factor unfavorable to the defendant, because the "substantiality" of the portion used is considered in addition to the amount used. For instance, in Harper & Row v. Nation Enterprises,,[14] the U.S. Supreme Court held that a news article's quotation of fewer than 400 words from President Ford's 200,000-word memoir was sufficient to make the third fair use factor weigh against the defendants, because the portion taken was the "heart of the work." This use was ultimately found not to be fair.[14] 4. Effect upon work's value[edit] The fourth factor measures the effect that the allegedly infringing use has had on the copyright owner's ability to exploit his or her original work. The court not only investigates whether the defendant's specific use of the work has significantly harmed the copyright owner's market, but also whether such uses in general, if widespread, would harm the potential market of the original. The burden of proof here rests on the copyright owner, who must demonstrate the impact of the infringement on commercial use of the work. For example, in Sony Corp v. Universal City Studios,[15] the copyright owner, Universal, failed to provide any empirical evidence that the use of Betamax had either reduced their viewership or negatively impacted their business. In Harper & Row, the case regarding President Ford's memoirs, the Supreme Court labeled the fourth factor "the single most important element of fair use" and it has enjoyed some level of primacy in fair use analyses ever since. Yet the Supreme Court's more recent announcement in Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music Inc[6] that "all [four factors] are to be explored, and the results weighed together, in light of the purposes of copyright" has helped modulate this emphasis in interpretation. In evaluating the fourth factor, courts often consider two kinds of harm to the potential market for the original work. First, courts consider whether the use in question acts as a direct market substitute for the original work. In Campbell, the Supreme Court stated that "when a commercial use amounts to mere duplication of the entirety of the original, it clearly supersedes the object of the original and serves as a market replacement for it, making it likely that cognizable market harm to the original will occur". In one instance, a court ruled that this factor weighed against a defendant who had made unauthorized movie trailers for video retailers, since his trailers acted as direct substitutes for the copyright owner's official trailers.[16] Second, courts also consider whether potential market harm might exist beyond that of direct substitution, such as in the potential existence of a licensing market. This consideration has weighed against commercial copy shops that make copies of articles in course-packs for college students, when a market already existed for the licensing of course-pack copies.[17] Courts recognize that certain kinds of market harm do not negate fair use, such as when a parody or negative review impairs the market of the original work. Copyright considerations may not shield a work against adverse criticism. Other factors[edit] As explained by Judge Leval, courts are permitted to include additional factors in their analysis.[5] One such factor is acknowledgement of the copyrighted source. Giving the name of the photographer or author may help, but it is does not automatically make a use fair. While plagiarism and copyright infringement are related matters, they are not identical. Plagiarism (using someone's words, ideas, images, etc. without acknowledgment) is a matter of professional ethics. Copyright is a matter of law, and protects exact expression, not ideas. One can plagiarize even a work that is not protected by copyright, for example by passing off a line from Shakespeare as one's own. Conversely, attribution prevents accusations of plagiarism, but it does not prevent infringement of copyright. For example, reprinting a copyrighted book without permission, while citing the original author, would be copyright infringement but not plagiarism. U.S. fair use procedure and practice[edit] The U.S. Supreme Court described fair use as an affirmative defense in Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc.[6] This means that in litigation on copyright infringement, the defendant bears the burden of raising and proving that the use was fair and not an infringement. Thus, fair use need not even be raised as a defense unless the plaintiff first shows (or the defendant concedes) a "prima facie" case of copyright infringement. If the work was not copyrightable, the term had expired, or the defendant's work borrowed only a small amount, for instance, then the plaintiff cannot make out a prima facie case of infringement, and the defendant need not even raise the fair use defense. In addition, fair use is only one of many limitations, exceptions, and defenses to copyright infringement. Thus, a prima facie case can be defeated without relying on fair use. For instance, the Audio Home Recording Act establishes that it is legal, using certain technologies, to make copies of audio recordings for non-commercial personal use.[18] Some copyright owners claim infringement even in circumstances where the fair use defense would likely succeed, in hopes that the user will refrain from the use rather than spending resources in his defense. Strategic lawsuit against public participation (SLAPP) cases such as these—alleging copyright infringement, patent infringement, defamation, or libel—often come into conflict with the defendant's right to freedom of speech, and has prompted some jurisdictions to pass anti-SLAPP legislation which raises the plaintiff's burdens and risk. Although fair use ostensibly permits certain uses without liability, many content creators and publishers try to avoid a potential court battle by seeking a legally unnecessary license from copyright owners for any use of non-public domain material, even in situations where a fair use defense would likely succeed. The simple reason is that the license terms negotiated with the copyright owner may be much less expensive than defending against a copyright suit, or having the mere possibility of a lawsuit threaten the publication of a work in which a publisher has invested significant resources. The frequent argument over whether fair use is a "right" or a "defense" is generated by confusion over the use of the term "affirmative defense."[19] "Affirmative defense" is simply a term of art from litigation reflecting the timing in which the defense is raised. It does not distinguish between "rights" and "defenses", and so it does not characterize the substance of the defendant's actions as "not a right but a defense". Fair use rights take precedence over the author's interest. Thus the copyright holder cannot use a non-binding disclaimer, or notification, to revoke the right of fair use on works. However, binding agreements such as contracts or licence agreements may take precedence over fair use rights.[20] The practical effect of the fair use doctrine is that a number of conventional uses of copyrighted works are not considered infringing. For instance, quoting from a copyrighted work in order to criticize or comment upon it or teach students about it, is considered a fair use. Certain well-established uses cause few problems. A teacher who prints a few copies of a poem to illustrate a technique will have no problem on all four of the above factors (except possibly on amount and substantiality), but some cases are not so clear. All the factors are considered and balanced in each case: a book reviewer who quotes a paragraph as an example of the author's style will probably fall under fair use even though he may sell his review commercially; but a non-profit educational website that reproduces whole articles from technical magazines will probably be found to infringe if the publisher can demonstrate that the website affects the market for the magazine, even though the website itself is non-commercial. Fair use is decided on a case by case basis, on the entirety of circumstances. The same act done by different means or for a different purpose can gain or lose fair use status. Even repeating an identical act at a different time can make a difference due to changing social, technological, or other surrounding circumstances.[7][21] Fair use in particular areas[edit] Fair use and text and data mining[edit] The transformative nature of computer based analytical processes such as text mining, web mining and data mining has led many to form the view that such uses would be protected under fair use. This view was substantiated by the rulings of Judge Denny Chin in Authors Guild, Inc. v. Google, Inc., a case involving mass digitisation of millions of books from research library collections. As part of the ruling that found the book digitisation project was fair use, the judge stated "Google Books is also transformative in the sense that it has transformed book text into data for purposes of substantive research, including data mining and text mining in new areas".[22][23] Text and data mining was subject to further review in Authors Guild v. HathiTrust, a case derived from the same digitization project mentioned above. Judge Harold Baer, in finding that the defendant's uses were transformative, stated that 'the search capabilities of the [HathiTrust Digital Library] have already given rise to new methods of academic inquiry such as text mining."[24][25] Fair use and parody[edit] Producers or creators of parodies of a copyrighted work have been sued for infringement by the targets of their ridicule, even though such use may be protected as fair use. These fair use cases distinguish between parodies, which use a work in order to poke fun at or comment on the work itself and satire, which use a work to poke fun at or comment on something else. Courts have been more willing to grant fair use protections to parodies than to satires, but the ultimate outcome in either circumstance will turn on the application of the four fair use factors. For example, when Tom Forsythe appropriated Barbie dolls for his photography project "Food Chain Barbie" (depicting several copies of the doll naked and disheveled and about to be baked in an oven, blended in a food mixer, and the like), Mattel lost its copyright infringement lawsuit against him because his work effectively parodies Barbie and the values she represents.[26] In Rogers v. Koons, Jeff Koons tried to justify his appropriation of Art Rogers' photograph "Puppies" in his sculpture "String of Puppies" with the same parody defense. He lost because his work was not presented as a parody of Rogers' photograph in particular, but as a satire of society at large. This was insufficient to render the use fair.[27] Two films have since been made based on the same H. G. Wells novel. The first was released in 1977 and stars Burt Lancaster as the doctor. The second came out in 1996, with Marlon Brando as Moreau. In the very similar The Twilight People (1973), actress Pam Grier played the panther woman. Playwright Charles Ludlam used this movie, as well as Wells' novel and the fairy tale by Charles Perrault, when writing his play Bluebeard (1970). Members of the new wave band Devo were fans of the film. The "What is the law?" sequence formed part of the lyrics to Devo's song "Jocko Homo," with Lugosi's query "Are we not men?" providing the title to their 1978 debut album Q: Are We Not Men? A: We Are Devo! Devo's short film "The Truth About De-Evolution" and an interview with founding members Gerald V. Casale and Mark Mothersbaugh are special features on the Criterion Collection release of the film. Oingo Boingo is another new wave band who paid tribute to the film with their song "No Spill Blood," which featured the refrain "What is the Law? No spill blood!" and appeared on their 1983 album, Good for Your Soul. The Meteors, a psychobilly band from the UK told the story of the film in their song "Island of Lost Souls" on their 1986 album Teenagers From Outer Space, the chorus being a prolonged chant of "We don't eat meat; Are We Not Men? We stand on two feet; Are We Not Men?" etc. Heavy metal band Van Halen paid homage to the film in the original version of their song "House of Pain", the early lyrics for which directly referenced the storyline of the movie. During onstage introductions of the song circa 1976-77, Van Halen vocalist David Lee Roth routinely gave a brief synopsis of the film. The song was shelved for the better part of a decade, but eventually resurfaced with different non-movie-related lyrics and released on the band's 1984 album. The US horror-rock band Manimals based much of their stage persona on the film. Their 1985 Blood is the Harvest vinyl E.P. closes with the song "Island of Lost Souls". The track includes a "What is the Law?" section that fans would chant during live shows. The film historian Gary Don Rhodes has called them "the best-ever in the horror-rock genre" and referenced them in his 1997 book Lugosi (McFarland Press). References[edit] Jump up ^ James C. Robertson, The Hidden Cinema: British Film Censorship in Action, 1913-1975, London, Routledge (1989), pp. 55-57. Jump up ^ James C. Robertson, The British Board of Film Censors: Film Censorship in Britain, 1896-1950, Dover, NH: Croon Helm (1985). Sources[edit] Island of Lost Souls VHS tape, Universal Home Video Monsters Classic Collection IMDb profile: Island of Lost Souls Classics of the Horror Film: From the Days of the Silent Film to the Exorcist, by Willam K. Everson Kevin Hart: What Now? October 21, 2016 Ouija 2 co-production with Blumhouse Productions November 11, 2016 A Meyers Christmas co-production with Will Packer Productions November 23, 2016 The Great Wall distribution outside of China only; produced by Legendary Pictures, Atlas Entertainment, China Film Co., Ltd and Le Vision Pictures December 9, 2016 Let It Snow December 21, 2016 Sing co-production with Illumination Entertainment January 6, 2017 Mena January 20, 2017 Split co-production with Blumhouse Productions February 10, 2017 Fifty Shades Darker March 10, 2017 Kong: Skull Island March 24, 2017 The Mummy co-production with K/O Paper Products April 14, 2017 Furious 8 June 30, 2017 Despicable Me 3 co-production with Illumination Entertainment August 4, 2017 Pitch Perfect 3 October 20, 2017 Untitled film co-production with Blumhouse Productions November 17, 2017 How the Grinch Stole Christmas co-production with Illumination Entertainment February 9, 2018 Fifty Shades Freed March 30, 2018 Untitled Universal Monsters film June 22, 2018 Jurassic World sequel TBA The Best Man Wedding Low Riders co-production Pacific Rim 2 co-production with Legendary Pictures[4] Search Party US distribution only; co-production with Gold Circle Films and Original Film Silver Pictures[21] Village Roadshow Pictures (2016-) Will Packer Productions (2013-)[22] Blumhouse Productions[23] Former distribution deals Morgan Creek Productions product (2003-2011) [24] Cross Creek Pictures (2011-2014) Units[edit] Divisions[edit] Universal Television Universal Pictures Home Entertainment Focus Features Gramercy Pictures label Working Title Films Illumination Entertainment Universal Animation Studios Joint ventures[edit] United International Pictures Film series[edit] Title Release date Notes Universal Monsters 1923-1956 Jaws 1975–1987 Back to the Future 1985–1990 co-production with Amblin Entertainment Jurassic Park 1993–present co-production with Amblin Entertainment and Legendary Pictures The Mummy 1999–2008 co-production with Relativity Media, Sommers Company and Alphaville Films The Chronicles of Riddick 2000-2013 co-production with One Race Films, Interscope Communications, Radar Pictures and PolyGram Filmed Entertainment The Fast and the Furious 2001–present co-production with Original Film, Relativity Media, One Race Films and Media Rights Capital Bourne 2002–present co-production with The Kennedy/Marshall Company and Relativity Media Despicable Me 2010–present co-production with Illumination Entertainment The Purge 2013–present co-production with Blumhouse Productions, Platinum Dunes and Why Not Productions Universal Monsters Cinematic Universe 2014–present co-production with Legendary Pictures Davis Entertainment - John Davis Marvel Entertainment (2000–present) New Regency - major co-financing partner: Arnon Milchan Searchlight's deals Decibel Films - Danny Boyle Ad Hominem Enterprises - Alexander Payne and Jim Taylor[21] Films[edit] Main articles: List of 20th Century Fox films (1935–1999) and List of 20th Century Fox films (2000–present) See also[edit] Related companies: 20th Century Fox Animation 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment 20th Century Fox Television Fox 21 Fox Atomic Fox Broadcasting Company Fox Entertainment Group Fox Interactive Fox Star Studios Fox Searchlight Pictures Related products: 20th Century Fox Studio Classics – A premium DVD collection Fox Family Fun – A family DVD collection Other: Backlot Blu-ray Disc Association CinemaScope Blue Sky Studios DreamWorks Animation Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer In June 2008, Variety reported that DreamWorks was looking for financing that would allow it to continue operations, but as a production company, once its deal with Paramount ended later that year.[22] Several public equity funds were approached for financing including Blackstone Group, Fuse Global, TPG Capital, and several others, but all passed on the deal given their understanding of the Hollywood markets. Then most of the backing would come from an Indian investment firm called Reliance ADA Group. In January 2009, Spielberg entered a licensing agreement with DreamWorks Animation to use the DreamWorks trademarks, logo, and name for film productions and releases.[23] In September 2008, Variety reported that DreamWorks closed a deal with Reliance to create a stand-alone production company called DreamWorks Studios and end its ties with Paramount.[24][25] On February 9, 2009, DreamWorks Studios entered into a long-term, 30-picture distribution deal with Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures by which the films will be released through the Touchstone Pictures banner.[3] The deal also includes co-funding via a loan by Disney to DreamWorks Studios for production and access to slots in Disney's pay television agreement then with Starz.[3] This agreement is reported to have come after negotiations broke off with Universal Pictures just days earlier.[26] DreamWorks raised $325 million from Reliance Entertainment and an additional $325 million in debt in 2009.[1] DreamWorks Studios' initial movies, I Am Number Four, Cowboys & Aliens and Fright Night failed while The Help was a hit and Real Steel and Spielberg's own War Horse had some success at the box office. This left DreamWorks Studios so financially drained that by 2011, the company was seeking additional funding from Reliance. Reliance gave a $200 million investment in April 2012. Under the deal, DreamWorks Studios scaled back production to three films per year and sought co-financiers on big budget films with 20th Century Fox co-financing Lincoln and Robopocalypse. The company continues to utilize The Walt Disney Studios' marketing unit.[1] In August, after renegotiating their agreement with Disney, DreamWorks Studios formed a deal with Mister Smith Entertainment to distribute DreamWorks films in Europe, Africa and the Middle East, while Disney will continue to distribute in North America, Latin America, Australia, Russia, and some territories in Asia.[27] In September 2015, it was reported that DreamWorks and Disney would not renew their distribution deal, set to expire in August 2016, with The BFG being the last film to be released under the original agreement,[4][5] though Deadline Hollywood reported that Disney has set an October 2016 release date for The Girl on the Train.[28] In October 2015, DreamWorks is in negotiations with NBCUniversal to replace Disney with Universal Pictures as the domestic distributor.[29] The contract allowing Spielberg to license the DreamWorks name and logo from Jeffrey Katzenberg is set to expire on 1 January 2016, leading to speculation that Spielberg will not renew the pact and begin producing films under the Amblin name or a completely different brand altogether. However, a source close to both Spielberg and Katzenberg claims that they might consider continuing to operate two separate DreamWorks companies for the time being.[23] Logo[edit] The DreamWorks logo features a boy sitting on a crescent moon while fishing. The general idea for the logo was the idea of company co-founder Steven Spielberg, who wanted a computer generated image. The logo was then made at Industrial Light and Magic, in collaboration with Kaleidoscope Films, Dave Carson and Clint Goldman.[30] The music accompanying the logo to start live-action DreamWorks movies was specially composed by John Williams; the DreamWorks Animation logo has music from the Harry Gregson-Williams/John Powell score for Shrek. Distribution[edit] DreamWorks used to distribute its own films, with Universal handling video distribution rights. When Viacom bought DreamWorks in 2006, this meant most DreamWorks films were to be distributed by Paramount Pictures. This partnership ended in 2008. On February 9, 2009, DreamWorks entered into a long-term, 30-picture distribution deal with Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures by which the films will be released through the Touchstone Pictures banner. The deal also includes co-funding by Disney to DreamWorks for production.[3] Originally, the deal included access to slots in Disney's pay television agreement with Starz, but went to Showtime instead.[31] This agreement was reported to have come after negotiations broke off with Universal Pictures just days earlier.[26] However, this deal does not include Indian distribution rights, which is handled by Reliance.[3] Also not included are sequels to live-action films released before the Paramount merger, or those released by Paramount themselves – Paramount retains the rights to these franchises, and many sequels that were made by Paramount included, Little Fockers, which was released by Paramount internationally in December 2010 (Universal owns domestic rights), Anchorman 2: The Legend Continues, Road Trip: Beer Pong and Transformers: Dark of the Moon. The broadcast and basic subscription cable television distribution rights to many DreamWorks films are owned by either Trifecta Entertainment & Media and Disney-ABC Domestic Television (formerly known as Buena Vista Television), depending on both content and region of license. In South Korea, CJ Entertainment has the rights to release all DreamWorks' films, except some co-productions (for example, Minority Report and Road to Perdition were distributed by Fox, Small Soldiers, Gladiator, A Beautiful Mind and Seabiscuit by Universal Studios, Almost Famous and Evolution by Columbia Pictures, Saving Private Ryan by Paramount Pictures, and The Island and Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street by Warner Bros., due to these studios having owned the international rights to these films). Over the years, many DreamWorks films have aired on the ABC TV network through a deal. Formerly, United International Pictures, a joint venture of Paramount and Universal, released DreamWorks' films internationally (except South Korea). In August 2012, DreamWorks formed a deal with Mister Smith Entertainment, a joint venture of Constantin Film and Summit Entertainment co-founder David Garrett. Mister Smith will sell the distribution of DreamWorks films in Europe, Africa and the Middle East, while Disney will continue to distribute in North and South America, Kazakhstan, Australia, Russia,Southeast Asia and Eastern Asia.[27] Reliance will still distribute for India.[32] Mister Smith made a four-year deal with Entertainment One for distribution in the United Kingdom and the Benelux countries.[33] Other deals were made with Constantin Film for Germany/Austria/Switzerland, Nordisk Film for Scandinavia, and Italia Film for the Middle East.[32] In February 2013, DreamWorks announced distribution deals with Acme (the Baltic regions), United King (Israel), Metropolitan Filmexport (France),[34] Andrea Leone (Italy), Monolith (Poland), Blitz (Croatia, Serbia, Slovenia),SinemArt and Rapi Films (Indonesia), Fida Film (Turkey), Lusomundo (Portugal), Odeon (Greece), Interfilm (Ukraine), and TriPictures/DeaPlaneta (Spain).[35] Highest-grossing films Rank Title Year Domestic gross Notes 1 Titanic* 1997 $658,672,302 Distributed internationally by 20th Century Fox. 2 Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen 2009 $402,111,870 Distributed internationally by DreamWorks Pictures. 3 Transformers: Dark of the Moon 2011 $352,390,543 4 Forrest Gump* 1994 $330,252,182 5 Shrek the Third 2007 $322,719,944 Distribution only. Owned and produced by DreamWorks Animation. 6 Transformers 2007 $319,246,193 Distributed internationally by DreamWorks Pictures. 7 Iron Man 2008 $318,412,101 Distribution only; produced by Marvel Studios. Distribution rights were transferred to the Walt Disney Studios in 2013.[85] 8 Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull 2008 $317,101,119 9 Iron Man 2 2010 $312,433,331 Distribution only; produced by Marvel Studios. Distribution rights were transferred to the Walt Disney Studios in 2013.[85] 10 Star Trek 2009 $257,730,019 11 Raiders of the Lost Ark* 1981 $248,159,971 Later retitled Indiana Jones and the Raiders of the Lost Ark. 12 Transformers: Age of Extinction 2014 $245,439,076 13 Shrek Forever After 2010 $238,736,787 Distribution only. Owned and produced by DreamWorks Animation. 14 Beverly Hills Cop 1984 $234,760,478 15 War of the Worlds 2005 $234,280,354 Distributed internationally by DreamWorks Pictures. 16 Star Trek Into Darkness 2013 $228,778,661 17 Ghost 1990 $217,631,306 18 How to Train Your Dragon 2010 $217,581,231 Distribution only. Owned and produced by DreamWorks Animation. 19 Madagascar 3: Europe's Most Wanted 2012 $216,391,482 Distribution only. Owned and produced by DreamWorks Animation. 20 Kung Fu Panda 2008 $215,434,591 Distribution only. Owned and produced by DreamWorks Animation. 21 Mission: Impossible II 2000 $215,409,889 22 Mission: Impossible - Ghost Protocol 2011 $209,397,903 23 World War Z 2013 $202,359,711 24 Monsters vs. Aliens 2009 $198,351,526 Distribution only. Owned and produced by DreamWorks Animation. 25 Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade 1989 $197,171,806 Defunct 1983 Status Catalogue and artist roster now controlled by Polydor Records while the Bee Gees catalogue is now controlled by Reprise/Rhino Records and the Star Wars soundtracks by Sony Classical Genre Various Country of origin United States RSO Records was a record label formed by rock and roll and musical theatre impresario Robert Stigwood in 1973.[1] The "RSO" stands for the Robert Stigwood Organisation. The company's main headquarters were at 67 Brook Street, in London's Mayfair. It underwent four distribution stages: by Atlantic Records from March 1973 to December 1975, by Polydor Records from January 1976 to December 1977, as an independent label from January 1978 to around October 1981, and finally by PolyGram Records from around November 1981 until the label's end in 1983.[2] RSO managed the careers of several superstars (Bee Gees, Yvonne Elliman, Eric Clapton, Andy Gibb), and, as a record label, released the soundtracks to Fame, Sparkle, The Empire Strikes Back, Return of the Jedi, Times Square, Grease (over 30 million copies sold worldwide), and Saturday Night Fever (over 35 million copies sold worldwide). The release of the latter two albums made RSO one of the most financially successful labels of the 1970s. As successful as the label was financially, the independent label produced successes on the pop charts never before seen by the recording industry. By one point in 1978, the label boasted an unprecedented sixth consecutive number-one single on the Billboard (US) pop charts, holding the top spot for 21 consecutive weeks. With singles releases from the Grease album ("You're the One That I Want", and the title track) and another huge Andy Gibb smash ("Shadow Dancing"), RSO would log a further 10 weeks at the number 1 position, giving the label a record nine in one calendar year. This feat remains unduplicated by any record label to date.[citation needed] It also released a one-off single that summer by Paul Jones, featuring orchestrated ballad-style versions of two punk classics, Pretty Vacant, and Sheena is a Punk Rocker. As well as the label was operating in 1978, the disastrous commercial and critical failure of RSO's movie version of Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band crippled the company. The woes of this failure were only somewhat offset by the middle of 1979, as the Bee Gees album Spirits Having Flown went on to eventually sell nearly 20 million copies (with the album producing three further number 1 singles that each sold more than one million copies in their own right). In 1980, the label's most famous act, the Bee Gees, filed a $200 million lawsuit against both RSO and Stigwood, claiming mismanagement. The lawsuit was subsequently settled for an undisclosed amount, and after a public reconciliation, the band remained with the label until its dissolution. By 1981, Stigwood had ended his involvement with the label, which was absorbed into PolyGram a few years later. All previous RSO releases were later re-released under Polydor's label. The Star Wars soundtracks would pass through several hands before ultimately ending up with Sony Classical in the 90s, and the Bee Gees catalog reverted to the Gibb family, who set up a new distribution arrangement with Warner Music's Rhino Records division, who has reissued their albums and the Saturday Night Fever soundtrack on the Reprise label. Contents [hide] 1 The logo 2 Label variations 3 See also 4 References The logo[edit] Stigwood explained the inspiration for RSO Records' akabeko logo in a 2001 interview for Billboard: “ I was in Japan with the Who and decided to set up RSO as an independent label. I has designers working on a logo, but I didn’t like any of them. Some Japanese friends gave me a papier-mâché cow, which is a symbol of good health and good fortune. It was on the mantelpiece in my office, and I thought, “Good health and good fortune”, that’s appropriate. Just write RSO on it."'[3] ” Label variations[edit] Atlantic-owned label: Peach label with small logo Polydor-owned label: Tan label with large logo, Polydor logo at bottom perimeter of label Independently owned label: Tan label with larger logo Polygram-owned label: Silver label with large logo RSO Top Line reissue label: White label with gold or silver star, very small logo at top of label between TOP and LINE 1981: The Nashville Grab — Buddy Walker 1983: Making of a Male Model — Chuck Lanyard 1983: Wizards and Warriors — Prince Erik Greystone (10 episodes, 1983) 1984: Murder, She Wrote — Howard Griffin (4 episodes, 1984–1994) 1985: Berrenger's — John Higgins (11 episodes, 1985) 1985: The Love Boat — Andy Jackson (1 episode, 1985) 1985: Who's the Boss? — Jeff (1 episode, 1985) 1986: Matlock (NBC) — "The Affair" (S01, E05) as Daniel Ward 1987: Bay Coven — Josh McGwin 1987: Hotel — Eric Madison (1 episode, 1987) 1987: Mike Hammer — Harry Farris (2 episodes, in 1984 and 1987) 1987: Stingray — Ty Gardner (1 episode, 1987) 1987: Tales from the Darkside — Peter (1 episode, 1987) 1987: The Bold and the Beautiful — Mick Savage (unknown episodes, 1989–1990) 1988: The Dirty Dozen: The Fatal Mission — Sgt. Holt 1989: Freddy's Nightmares — Buddy Powers (1 episode, 1989) 1989: Monsters — Phil (1 episode, 1989) 1990: Good Grief — Winston Payne (1 episode, 1990) 1990: Shades of L.A. — Richard (1 episode, 1990) 1993: Matlock (ABC) — "Matlock's Bad, Bad, Bad Dream" (S08, E11) as Slick/Waiter 1994: Babylon 5 — Zack Allan (74 episodes, 1994–1998) 1995: Burke's Law — Dr. Alex Kenyon (1 episode, 1995) 1995: Hope and Gloria — Bud Green (1 episode, 1995) 1996: Mr. & Mrs. Smith — Rich Edwards (1 episode, 1996) 1997: George & Leo (1 episode, 1997) 1998: Babylon 5: The River of Souls — Zack Allan 1998: Babylon 5: Thirdspace — Zack Allan 1999: Babylon 5: A Call to Arms — Zack Allan 2000: L.A. 7 — Manager of Radio Station (1 episode, 2000) 2004: She Spies — Zachary Mason (1 episode, 2004) 2006: The John Kerwin Show — Guest (1 episode, 2006) Awards[edit] Year Recipient/Nominated work Award Result 1978 Grease Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy Nominated John Travolta Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy Nominated Olivia Newton-John Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy Nominated "Grease" Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song Nominated "You're the One That I Want" Nominated "Hopelessly Devoted to You" Academy Award for Best Original Song Nominated 1979 CIC Golden Screen Award Won Stockard Channing People's Choice Award for Favorite Motion Picture Supporting Actress Won Olivia Newton-John People's Choice Award for Favorite Motion Picture Actress Won Grease People's Choice Award for Favorite Musical Motion Picture Won Grease People's Choice Award for Favorite Overall Motion Picture Won 2006 Grease Satellite Award for Best Classic DVD Nominated 2008 "You're the One That I Want" TV Land Award for Movie Dance Sequence You Reenacted in Your Living Room Nominated American Film Institute Recognition[edit] American Film Institute Lists AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions: No. 97 AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs: No. 70 for "Summer Nights" AFI's Greatest Movie Musicals: No. 20 Sequel[edit] Grease 2 (1982) was a sequel to Grease starring Maxwell Caulfield and Michelle Pfeiffer. As mentioned, only a few cast members from the original movie such as Dody Goodman, Sid Caesar, Eddie Deezen, Didi Conn, Dennis Stewart and Eve Arden reprise their respective roles. Dick Patterson returned, playing a different character. It was not nearly as successful, grossing just $15 million on its $13 million budget. Patricia Birch, the original movie's choreographer, directed the ill-fated sequel. It would be the only movie that she would direct. After the success of the original, Paramount intended to turn Grease into a multi-picture franchise with three sequels planned and a TV series down the road. However, the disappointing box office performance of Grease 2 prompted the producers to scrap all the plans.[35] On July 8, 2010, a sing-along version of Grease had a limited released to theaters around the U.S.[36] A trailer was released in May 2010 with cigarettes digitally removed from certain scenes, implying heavy editing; however, Paramount confirmed these changes were done only for the film's advertising,[37] and the rating for the film itself changed from its original PG to that of PG-13 for "sexual content including references, teen smoking and drinking, and language."[38] The movie was shown for two weekends only; additional cities lobbied by fans from the Paramount official website started a week later and screened for one weekend.[39] On March 12, 2013, Grease and Grease 2 were packaged together in a Double Feature DVD set from Warner Home Video. Independent publishing alternatives[edit] See also: Alternative media Writers in a specialized field or with a narrower appeal have found smaller alternatives to the mass market in the form of small presses and self-publishing. More recently, these options include print on demand and ebook format. These publishing alternatives provide an avenue for authors who believe that mainstream publishing will not meet their needs or who are in a position to make more money from direct sales than they could from bookstore sales, such as popular speakers who sell books after speeches. Authors are more readily published by this means due to the much lower costs involved. Recent developments[edit] The 21st century has brought some new technological changes to the publishing industry. These changes include e-books, print on demand and accessible publishing. E-books have been quickly growing in availability in major publishing markets such as the USA and the UK since 2005. Google, Amazon.com and Sony have been leaders in working with publishers and libraries to digitize books. As of early 2011 Amazon's Kindle reading device is a significant force in the market, along with the Apple iPad and the Nook from Barnes & Noble.[citation needed] Along with the growing popularity of e-books, some companies like Oyster and Scribd have pursued the subscription model, providing members unlimited access to a content library on a variety of digital reading devices. The ability to quickly and cost-effectively print on demand has meant that publishers no longer have to store books at warehouses, if the book is in low or unknown demand. This is a huge advantage to small publishers who can now operate without large overheads and large publishers who can now cost-effectively sell their backlisted items. Accessible publishing uses the digitization of books to mark up books into XML and then produces multiple formats from this to sell to consumers, often targeting those with difficulty reading. Formats include a variety larger print sizes, specialized print formats for dyslexia,[12] eye tracking problems and macular degeneration, as well as Braille, DAISY, audiobooks and e-books.[13] Green publishing means adapting the publishing process to minimise environmental impact. One example of this is the concept of on-demand printing, using digital or print-on-demand technology. This cuts down the need to ship books since they are manufactured close to the customer on a just-in-time basis.[14] A further development is the growth of on-line publishing where no physical books are produced. The ebook is created by the author and uploaded to a website from where it can be downloaded and read by anyone. An increasing number of small authors are using niche marketing online to sell more books by engaging with their readers online.[15] These authors can use free services such as Smashwords or Amazon's CreateSpace to have their book available for worldwide sale. There is an obvious attraction for first time authors who have been repeatedly rejected by the existing agent/publisher model to explore this opportunity. However, a consequence of this change in the mechanics of book distribution is that there is now no mandatory check on author skill or even their ability to spell, and any person with an internet connection can publish whatever they choose, regardless of the literary merit or even basic readability of their writing. Standardization[edit] Refer to the ISO divisions of ICS 01.140.40 and 35.240.30 for further information.[16][17] Legal issues[edit] World Intellectual Property Organization, Geneva Main article: Publication Publication is the distribution of copies or content to the public.[18][19] The Berne Convention requires that this can only be done with the consent of the copyright holder, which is initially always the author.[18] In the Universal Copyright Convention, "publication" is defined in article VI as "the reproduction in tangible form and the Boris Trajanov ????? ???????? Popular and folk music edit Composers edit Darko Dimitrov ????? ???????? Slave Dimitrov ????? ???????? Jovan Jovanov ????? ??????? Ilija Pejovski ????? ???????? Musicians edit Bodan Arsovski ????? ???????? Goran Trajkoski ????? ????????? Ratko Dautovski ????? ????????? Kiril Džajkovski ????? ????????? Tale Ognenovski ???? ?????????? Vlatko Stefanovski ?????? ??????????? Stevo Teodosievski ????? ???????????? Aleksandra Popovska ?????????? ???????? Singers and Bands edit Lambe Alabakoski ????? ?????????? Anastasia ????????? Arhangel ???????? Kristina Arnaudova ???????? ????????? Kaliopi Bukle ??????? Dani Dimitrovska ???? ??????????? Riste Tevdoski ????? ???????? Karolina Goceva ???????? ?????? Vaska Ilieva ????? ?????? Andrijana Janevska ????????? ???????? Vlado Janevski ????? ???????? Jovan Jovanov ????? ??????? Leb i sol ??? ? ??? Aleksandar Makedonski ?????????? ?????????? Elvir Mekic ????? ????? Mizar ????? Jasmina Mukaetova ??????? ????e???? The Malagasy French Malgache are the ethnic group that forms nearly the entire population of Madagascar They are divided into two subgroups the "Highlander" Merina Sihanaka and Betsileo of the central plateau around Antananarivo Alaotra Ambatondrazaka and Fianarantsoa and the "coastal dwellers" elsewhere in the country This division has its roots in historical patterns of settlement The original Austronesian settlers from Borneo arrived between the third and tenth centuries and established a network of principalities in the Central Highlands region conducive to growing the rice they had carried with them on their outrigger canoes Sometime later a large number of settlers arrived from East Africa and established kingdoms along the relatively unpopulated coastlines The difference in ethnic origins remains somewhat evident between the highland and coastal regions In addition to the ethnic distinction between highland and coastal Malagasy one may speak of a political distinction as well Merina monarchs in the late th and early th century united the Merina principalities and brought the neighboring Betsileo people under their administration first They later extended Merina control over the majority of the coastal areas as well The military resistance and eventual defeat of most of the coastal communities assured their subordinate position vis à vis the Merina Betsileo alliance During the th and th centuries the French colonial administration capitalized on and further exacerbated these political inequities by appropriating existing Merina governmental infrastructure to run their colony This legacy of political inequity dogged the people of Madagascar after gaining independence in candidates ethnic and regional identities have often served to help or hinder their success in democratic elections Within these two broad ethnic and political groupings the Malagasy were historically subdivided into specifically named ethnic groups who were primarily distinguished from one another on the basis of cultural practices These were namely agricultural hunting or fishing practices construction style of dwellings music hair and clothing styles and local customs or taboos the latter known in the Malagasy language as fady citation needed The number of such ethnic groups in Madagascar has been debated The practices that distinguished many of these groups are less prevalent in the st century than they were in the past But many Malagasy are proud to proclaim their association with one or several of these groups as part of their own cultural identity "Highlander" ethnic groups Merina Sihanaka Betsileo Zafimaniry Coastal ethnic groups Antaifasy or Antefasy Antaimoro or Temoro or Antemoro Antaisaka or Antesaka Antambahoaka Antandroy or Tandroy Antankarana Antanosy or Tanosy Academia edit Afifi al Akiti Khasnor Johan historian Khoo Kay Kim Jomo Kwame Sundaram Danny Quah Harith Ahmad Architects edit Main article List of Malaysian architects Artists edit Main article List of Malaysian artists Business edit Tan Sri Syed Mokhtar Al Bukhary born Tan Sri Dato Loh Boon Siew – Tan Sri Jeffrey Cheah Tan Sri William Cheng Dato Choong Chin Liang born Tan Sri Dato Tony Fernandes born Lim Goh Tong – Tan Sri Tiong Hiew King Tan Sri Teh Hong Piow born Chung Keng Quee – Tan Sri Ananda Krishnan born Robert Kuok born Tan Sri Quek Leng Chan born Shoba Purushothaman Shah Hakim Zain Halim Saad Tan Sri Mohd Saleh Sulong Tan Sri Vincent Tan born Lillian Too born Tan Sri Dr Francis Yeoh Tun Daim Zainuddin born Tan Sri Kong Hon Kong Designers edit Bernard Chandran fashion designer Jimmy Choo born shoe designer Poesy Liang born artist writer philanthropist jewellery designer industrial designer interior architect music composer Inventors edit Yi Ren Ng inventor of the Lytro Entertainers edit Yasmin Ahmad – film director Stacy Angie Francissca Peter born Jamal Abdillah born Sudirman Arshad – Loganathan Arumugam died Datuk David Arumugam Alleycats Awal Ashaari Alvin Anthons born Asmawi bin Ani born Ahmad Azhar born Ning Baizura born Kasma Booty died Marion Caunter host of One In A Million and the TV Quickie Ella born Erra Fazira born Sean Ghazi born Fauziah Latiff born Angelica Lee born Daniel Lee Chee Hun born Fish Leong born Sheila Majid born Amy Mastura born Mohamad Nasir Mohamad born Shathiyah Kristian born Meor Aziddin Yusof born Ah Niu born Dayang Nurfaizah born Shanon Shah born Siti Nurhaliza born Misha Omar born Hani Mohsin – Aziz M Osman born Azmyl Yunor born P Ramlee born Aziz Sattar born Fasha Sandha born Ku Nazhatul Shima Ku Kamarazzaman born Nicholas Teo born Pete Teo Penny Tai born Hannah Tan born Jaclyn Victor born Chef Wan Adira Suhaimi Michael Wong born Victor Wong born Dato Michelle Yeoh Hollywood actress born James Wan director of Hollywood films like several Saw films Insidious The Conjuring Fast and Furious born Ziana Zain born Zee Avi Shila Amzah Yunalis Zarai Zamil Idris born Military edit Leftenan Adnan – Warrior from mainland Malaya Antanum Warrior from Sabah Borneo Rentap Warrior from Sarawak Syarif Masahor Warrior from Sarawak Monsopiad Warrior from Sabah Borneo Haji Abdul Rahman Limbong Warrior from Telemong Terengganu Mat Salleh Warrior from Sabah Borneo Rosli Dhobi Warrior from Sarawak Politicians edit Parameswara founder of Sultanate of Malacca Tunku Abdul Rahman Putra Al Haj st Prime Minister of independent Malaya Tun Abdul Razak nd Prime Minister V T Sambanthan Founding Fathers of Malaysia along with Tunku Abdul Rahman and Tan Cheng Lock Tun Dato Sir Tan Cheng Lock Founder of MCA Tun Hussein Onn rd Prime Minister Mahathir Mohammad th Prime Minister Father of Modernisation Abdullah Ahmad Badawi th Prime Minister since Najib Tun Razak Current Prime Minister since Dato Seri Ong Ka Ting Dato Seri Anwar Ibrahim Dato Wan Hisham Wan Salleh Nik Aziz Nik Mat Raja Nong Chik Zainal Abidin Federal Territory and Urban Wellbeing Minister Wan Azizah Wan Ismail Karpal Singh Lim Kit Siang Lim Guan Eng Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah Religious edit Antony Selvanayagam Roman Catholic Bishop of the Diocese of Penang Anthony Soter Fernandez Archbishop Emeritus of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Kuala Lumpur and Bishop Emeritus of the Diocese of Penang Gregory Yong – Second Roman Catholic Archbishop of Singapore Tan Sri Datuk Murphy Nicholas Xavier Pakiam Metropolitan archbishop of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Kuala Lumpur president of the Catholic Bishops Conference of Malaysia Singapore and Brunei and publisher of the Catholic weekly newspaper The Herald Datuk Ng Moon Hing the fourth and current Anglican Bishop of West Malaysia Sportspeople edit Squash edit Datuk Nicol Ann David Ong Beng Hee Azlan Iskandar Low Wee Wern Badminton edit Chan Chong Ming men s doubles Dato Lee Chong Wei Chew Choon Eng men s doubles Wong Choong Hann Chin Eei Hui women s doubles Hafiz Hashim Roslin Hashim Wong Pei Tty women s doubles Choong Tan Fook men s doubles Lee Wan Wah men s doubles Koo Kien Keat men s doubles Tan Boon Heong men s doubles Retired edit Tan Aik Huang Eddy Choong Punch Gunalan Yap Kim Hock Foo Kok Keong Jalani Sidek Misbun Sidek Rashid Sidek Razif Sidek Cheah Soon Kit Lee Wan Wah Football soccer edit Brendan Gan Sydney FC Shaun Maloney Wigan Athletic Akmal Rizal Perak FA Kedah FA RC Strasbourg FCSR Haguenau Norshahrul Idlan Talaha Kelantan FA Khairul Fahmi Che Mat Kelantan FA Mohd Safiq Rahim Selangor FA Mohd Fadzli Saari Selangor FA PBDKT T Team FC SV Wehen Rudie Ramli Selangor FA PKNS F C SV Wehen Mohd Safee Mohd Sali Selangor FA Pelita Jaya Baddrol Bakhtiar Kedah FA Mohd Khyril Muhymeen Zambri Kedah FA Mohd Azmi Muslim Kedah FA Mohd Fadhli Mohd Shas Harimau Muda A FC ViOn Zlaté Moravce Mohd Irfan Fazail Harimau Muda A FC ViOn Zlaté Moravce Wan Zack Haikal Wan Noor Harimau Muda A FC ViOn Zlaté Moravce F C Ryukyu Nazirul Naim Che Hashim Harimau Muda A F C Ryukyu Khairul Izuan Abdullah Sarawak FA Persibo Bojonegoro PDRM FA Stanley Bernard Stephen Samuel Sabah FA Sporting Clube de Goa Nazmi Faiz Harimau Muda A SC Beira Mar Ahmad Fakri Saarani Perlis FA Atlético S C Chun Keng Hong Penang FA Chanthaburi F C Retired edit Serbegeth Singh owner founder of MyTeam Blackburn Rovers F C Global dvisor Mokhtar Dahari former Selangor FA and Malaysian player Lim Teong Kim former Hertha BSC player