A general strike or mass strike is a strike action in which a substantial proportion of the total labour force in a city region or country participates General strikes are characterized by the participation of workers in a multitude of workplaces and tend to involve entire communities General strikes first occurred in the mid th century and have characterized many historically important strikes Contents hide History Antiquity Modern era Rosa Luxemburg Purpose Concept Socialists anarchists differ on tactics Syndicalism and the general strike Industrial Workers of the World Reaction of orthodox labor Notable general strikes See also Footnotes Further reading External links History edit Antiquity edit An early predecessor of the general strike may have been the secessio plebis in ancient Rome In the Outline Of History H G Wells recorded "the general strike of the plebeians the plebeians seem to have invented the strike which now makes its first appearance in history " Their first strike occurred because they "saw with indignation their friends who had often served the state bravely in the legions thrown into chains and reduced to slavery at the demand of patrician creditors " Wells noted that " t he patricians made a mean use of their political advantages to grow rich through the national conquests at the expense not only of the defeated enemy but of the poorer plebeian " The plebeians who were expected to obey the laws but were not allowed to know the laws which patricians were able to recite from memory were successful winning the right to appeal any injustice to the general assembly In BC in a concession resulting from the rebellion of the plebeians the laws of Rome were written for all to peruse Modern era edit The general strike action only became a feature of the political landscape with the onset of the Industrial Revolution For the first time in history large numbers of people were members of the industrial working class they lived in cities and exchanged their labour for payment By the s when the Chartist movement was at its peak a true and widespread 'workers' consciousness' was beginning to awaken in England

William Benbow pictured in Punch in The first theorist to formulate and popularise the idea of a general strike for the purpose of political reform was the radical pamphleteer William Benbow Closely involved with planning the attempted Blanketeers protest march by Lancashire weavers in March he became an associate of William Cobbett and passed his time "agitating the labouring classes at their trades meetings and club houses " On January Benbow published a pamphlet entitled Grand National Holiday and Congress of the Productive Classes Benbow began to advocate direct and even violent action for political reform in particular he advanced his idea for a "national holiday" and "national convention" By this he meant an extended period of general strike by the working classes which would be a sacred or holy action hence "holy day" during which time local committees would keep the peace and elect delegates to a national convention or congress which would agree the future direction of the nation The striking workers were to support themselves with savings and confiscated parish funds and by demanding contributions from rich people Benbow's idea of a Grand National Holiday was adopted by the Chartist Congress of Benbow having spent time in Manchester during promoting his the cause and his pamphlet In the demands for fairer wages and conditions across many different industries finally exploded into the first modern general strike The General Strike After the second Chartist Petition was presented to Parliament in April and rejected the strike began in the coal mines of Staffordshire England and soon spread through Britain affecting factories mills in Lancashire and coal mines from Dundee to South Wales and Cornwall Instead of being a spontaneous uprising of the mutinous masses the strike was politically motivated and was driven by a hard headed agenda to win concessions Probably as much as half of the then industrial work force were on strike at its peak over men The local leadership marshaled a growing working class tradition to politically organize their followers to mount an articulate challenge to the capitalist political establishment The mass abandonment of plantations by black slaves and poor whites during the American Civil War has controversially been considered a general strike In his classic history Black Reconstruction in America W E B Du Bois describes this mass abandonment in precisely these terms Transforming itself suddenly from a problem of abandoned plantations and slaves captured while being used by the Southern enemy for military purposes the movement became a general strike against the slave system on the part of all who could find opportunity The trickling streams of fugitives swelled to a flood Once begun the general strike of black and white went madly and relentlessly on like some great saga The next large scale general strike took place over half a century later in Belgium in an effort to force the government to grant universal suffrage to the people However there were periodical strikes throughout the th century that could loosely be considered as 'general strikes' In the United States the Philadelphia General Strike of lasted for three weeks after which the striking workers won their goal of a ten hour workday and an increase in wages Later general strikes include the Saint Louis general strike which grew out of the events of the Great Railroad Strike of across the United States and the New Orleans general strike The year of saw a cascade of general strikes around the world as a result of the political convulsions caused by the First World War in Germany Belfast Seattle and Winnipeg The Russian Revolution of saw a massive wave of social unrest across the Russian Empire characterised by large scale general strikes on the part of the industrial workers The United Kingdom general strike started in the coal industry and rapidly escalated the unions called out workers mainly in the transport and steel sectors although the strike was successfully suppressed by the government Rosa Luxemburg edit At the turn of the th century Belgium was particularly prone to large scale strike actions with at least four mass strikes occurring in and In there was the Walloon Jacquerie of but without an actual leading political organisation The final strike was the Belgian general strike of mentioned above In the Belgian Labour Party launched another strike which failed Many German social democrats thought such an experiment was absurd Drachkovitch observed that German socialists were against the general strike because "under the Kaiser supporting it was not very safe " Rosa Luxemburg in her book The Mass Strike the Political Party and the Trade Unions had a different view criticizing the Belgian Labour Party for perceived tactical incompetence A general strike forged in advance within the fetters of legality is like a war demonstration with cannons dumped into a river within the very sight of the enemy Carl E Schorske wrote about the same Belgian phenomenon studied by Luxemburg as well as the German opposition to it In German Social Democratic circles the general strike suffered from the hereditary taint of its anarchist origins Rosa Luxemburg who studied the Belgian strike was particularly impressed with its success in activating the political consciousness of the backward portions of the population She was not yet however prepared to give it European wide significance Luxemburg felt it to be appropriate only in countries in which industry was geographically concentrated Purpose edit General strikes have been done in order to seek "democracy political representation and the provision of basic education and healthcare" In Europe General Strikes were very common in the th and early th century In Portugal a general strike has been called by the federation of public labor unions to avert austerity measures In Honduras a general strike has been called by Union workers farmers and other organizations demanding better education an increase in the minimum wage and against fuel price hikes In Yemen a general strike has been called by protesters to protest the presidency of that country In Algeria public sector workers have mounted a general strike for higher wages and improved working conditions In February General Douglas MacArthur as Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers in Japan banned a planned general strike of government workers stating that "so deadly a social weapon" as the general strike should not be used in the impoverished and emaciated condition of Japan so soon after World War II Japan's labour leaders complied with his ban Concept edit Part of a series on Anarcho syndicalism Anarcho syndicalist flag Core tenets show People show Organizations show Literature show Related topics show Politics portal v t e Ralph Chaplin editor of the Industrial Workers of the World IWW newspaper Solidarity and later of the Industrial Worker identified four levels of general strike A General Strike in a community A General Strike in an Industry A national General Strike A revolutionary or class strike—the General Strike In the pamphlet The Social General Strike published in Chicago in Stephen Naft had previously acknowledged the same four levels of the general strike The name "General Strike" is often used to designate the strike of all branches in one trade for instance the general strike of the miners when helpers and hoisting engineers etc are all out Then it is used as General Strike of a city i e "General Strike in Florence" or a General Strike in a whole country or province for the purpose of gaining political rights i e the right to vote as in Belgium or Sweden The profoundest conception of the General Strike however is the one pointing to a thorough change of the present system a social revolution of the world an entire new reorganization a demolition of the entire old system of all governments Strike by Stanislaw Lentz National Museum in Warsaw Naft's pamphlet translated from the German language traced existing sentiment for this goal of the general strike to proletarians of Spain and Italy The premise of The Social General Strike is that no matter how powerfully the working class organizes itself it still has no significant power over a congress or the executive which has military force at its beck and call Therefore a general strike called by an "energetic and enthusiastic" minority of workers may be embraced by the mass of workers who remain unorganized Thus it may be possible to completely interrupt production in the whole country and stop communication and consumption for the ruling classes and that for a time long enough to totally disorganize the capitalistic society so that after the complete annihilation of the old system the working people can take possession through its labor unions of all the means of production The Social General Strike noted the complexity of modern industry identifying the many stages in the manufacturing process and geographic dispersal of related manufacturing locations as weaknesses of the industrial process during any labor dispute The pamphlet notes the problem of hunger during a general strike and recommends where warehouses are available for the purpose that proletarians do the same thing as the ruling classes have done uninterruptedly for thousands of years that is "consume without producing " This deportment of the ruling classes the working class calls exploitation and if the proletarians do it the possessing classes call it plundering—and socialism calls it expropriation However the pamphlet asserts that The immense advantage of the general strike is that it begins entirely lawfully and without any danger for the workers and for this reason thousands will take part Socialists anarchists differ on tactics edit Part of a series on Organized labour Labour movement show Labour rights show Trade unions show Strike action show Labour parties show Academic disciplines show v t e Part of the Politics series on Anarchism "Circle A" anarchy symbol Schools of thought show Theory Practice show People show Issues show History show Culture show Economics show By region show Lists show Related topics show Anarchism portal Politics portal v t e In in a study of revolutionary socialism Milorad M Drachkovitch of the Hoover Institution on War Revolution and Peace a conservative libertarian think tank noted two tactical options which divided late th century and early th century anarchists from socialists electoral politics which the socialists embraced but anarchists generally opposed and the general strike as a mechanism to prevent war which anarchists supported but socialists refused to endorse As a group the Socialists of the period repeatedly rejected the general strike as a tactic however a number of Socialist leaders advocated its use for one reason or another Socialist leaders who embraced the general strike tended to see it as an instrument for obtaining political concessions Drachkovitch identified five types of general strikes the political mass strike a general strike for political rights such as the right to vote the general strike as a revolutionary act that would transform society the general strike as a "revolutionary exercise" which would eventually lead to a transformation of society a one day demonstration general strike on May Day International Workers' Day aimed at identifying a "worldwide proletariat" commencing in a theoretical mechanism by which to stop wars between nation states Drachkovitch perceived the first two concepts the socialist friendly general strike for political rights within the system and the general strike as a revolutionary mechanism to overthrow the existing order—which he associated with a "rising anarcho syndicalist movement"—as in conflict Drachkovitch believed that the difficulty arose from the fact that the general strike was "one instrument" but was frequently considered "without distinction of underlying motives " Milorad M Drachkovitch also observed the variable success of the general strike in actual use In Belgium a general strike movement broken off in one instance without damage to the organizing forces eventually led to universal suffrage in Holland a general strike collapsed with disastrous consequences in Sweden a general strike was conducted and terminated with disciplined order but did not attain the desired results In Italy general strikes had been both socially effective and politically unproductive On the other hand the events of January in Russia once more seemed to underscore the suitability of the general strike as a decisively revolutionary action Syndicalism and the general strike edit Orthodox labor unions typically act as a representative from the workers to employers They bargain over wages hours and working conditions Other labor organizations typically bargain for the same wage hour and conditions improvements but embrace a critique of capital as establishing and maintaining a permanent working class and an elite ruling class These unions therefore advocate a permanent solution to the circumstances of strikes injunctions and crossing other workers' picket lines Given the hierarchical relationships of the existing economic system these other unions perceive the necessity of a radical change in the social order In brief these unions are radical in their orientation and may accurately be described as revolutionary One labour movement philosophy of "peaceful revolution" is known as syndicalism Its tactical method is the strike—the regular strike for protecting the material welfare of the workers and the general strike as a means to accomplish the desired permanent solution to industrial strife Syndicalism has been a common union organizing principle in a number of European countries including France Spain and Italy One variation of syndicalism is anarcho syndicalism which in comparison to syndicalism develops rank and file power with democratic traditions to maintain worker control over union leadership Industrial Workers of the World edit Syndicalism "The Hand That Will Rule The World—One Big Union" Precursors show Variants show Economics show Organisations show Leaders show Related subjects show Category Syndicalism Category Labour economics v t e In the United States Britain and to a lesser extent Australia the trend toward revolutionary unionism culminated in the growth of the Industrial Workers of the World IWW Technically the IWW is described as a union that practices revolutionary industrial unionism Some consider the revolutionary industrial unionism of the IWW to be a form of anarcho syndicalism Others point out differences for example Ralph Chaplin has written the I W W concept of the General Strike differs almost as much from that of the anarcho syndicalist as from that of the political or craft unionist In form structure and objective the I W W is more all sufficient more mature and more modern than any of its anarcho syndicalist predecessors The IWW began to fully embrace the general strike in The ultimate goal of the general strike according to Industrial Workers of the World theory is to displace capitalists and give control over the means of production to workers In a speech in New York City IWW organizer Haywood explained his view of the economic situation and why he believed a general strike was justified The capitalists have wealth they have money They invest the money in machinery in the resources of the earth They operate a factory a mine a railroad a mill They will keep that factory running just as long as there are profits coming in When anything happens to disturb the profits what do the capitalists do They go on strike don't they They withdraw their finances from that particular mill They close it down because there are no profits to be made there They don't care what becomes of the working class But the working class on the other hand has always been taught to take care of the capitalist's interest in the property Bill Haywood believed that industrial unionism made possible the general strike and the general strike made possible industrial democracy According to Wobbly theory the conventional strike is an important but not the only weapon for improving wages hours and working conditions for working people These strikes are also good training to help workers educate themselves about the class struggle and about what it will take to execute an eventual general strike for the purpose of achieving industrial democracy During the final general strike workers would not walk out of their shops factories mines and mills but would rather occupy their workplaces and take them over Prior to taking action to initiate industrial democracy workers would need to educate themselves with technical and managerial knowledge in order to operate industry According to labor historian Philip S Foner the Wobbly conception of industrial democracy is intentionally not presented in detail by IWW theorists in that sense the details are left to the "future development of society" However certain concepts are implicit Industrial democracy will be "a new society built within the shell of the old " Members of the industrial union educate themselves to operate industry according to democratic principles and without the current hierarchical ownership management structure Issues such as production and distribution would be managed by the workers themselves In the IWW called for a three day nationwide walkout—in essence a demonstration general strike—to protest the execution of anarchists Ferdinando Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti The most notable response to the call was in the Walsenburg coal district of Colorado where miners stayed off the job and only went to work a participation rate which led directly to the Colorado coal strike of On March the Industrial Workers of the World website www iww org supported an endorsement of a general strike as a followup to protests against Governor Scott Walker's proposed labor legislation in Wisconsin following a motion passed by the South Central Federation of Labor SCFL of Wisconsin endorsing a statewide general strike as a response to those legislative proposals The SCFL website states At SCFL’s monthly meeting Monday Feb delegates endorsed the following "The SCFL endorses a general strike possibly for the day Walker signs his 'budget repair bill '" An ad hoc committee was formed to explore the details SCFL did not CALL for a general strike because it does not have that authority Reaction of orthodox labor edit The year saw a number of general strikes throughout North America including two that were considered significant—the Seattle General Strike and the Winnipeg General Strike While the IWW participated in the Seattle General Strike that action was called by the Seattle Central Labor Union affiliated with the American Federation of Labor AFL predecessor of the AFL CIO April 30: Operation Frequent Wind: The last remaining US military and intelligence personnel escape Saigon as South Vietnam is invaded by communist forces, in direct violation of the Peace Accords.[496] May: A Protest on City Hall occurred after a Chinese-American engineer, Peter Yew was beaten by police in New York City Chinatown.[497] August 15: About 100 Native American protesters occupied the Bonneville Power Administration offices in Portland in response to repression by the feds of South Dakota's reservation[498] September 5 & 22: President Ford survives assassination attempts by two women in one month.[499] September 18: Patty Hearst is arrested by the FBI.[500] October 7: A New York State Supreme Court judge reverses the deportation order against John Lennon, allowing Lennon to legally remain in the US.[501] October 11: Saturday Night Live: The counterculture comes of age as George Carlin hosts the first episode of the mainstream TV revue. The long-running series soon features many notable American TV firsts, including open depiction of marijuana use in comedy sketches.[502][503][504] 1977[edit] January 21: Newly inaugurated US President Jimmy Carter unconditionally pardons thousands of Vietnam draft evaders, allowing them to re-enter the US, mostly from Canada.[505] August 16: Elvis Presley, the most significant progenitor of the rock era and an early critic of the counterculture, dies at age 42 from complications of prescription drug abuse in Memphis, TN.[506][507] 1980[edit] December 8: John Lennon, founding member of the Beatles, is murdered by a deranged fan in New York, triggering an outpouring of grief around the world Michael McClure (poet) Barry Miles (author, impresario) Madalyn Murray O'Hair (atheist, activist) Jim Morrison (singer, songwriter, poet) Ralph Nader (consumer advocate, author) Graham Nash (musician, activist) Jack Nicholson (screenwriter, actor) Phil Ochs (protest/topical singer) Richard Pryor (comedian, social critic) Jerry Rubin (Yippie, activist) Mark Rudd (activist) Ed Sanders (musician, activist) Mario Savio (free speech/student rights activist) John Searle (professor, free speech advocate) Pete Seeger (musician, activist) John Sinclair (poet, activist) Gary Snyder (poet, writer, environmentalist) Smothers Brothers (musicians, TV performers, activists) Owsley Stanley (drug culture chemist) Gloria Steinem (feminist, publisher) Hunter S. Thompson (journalist, author) Kurt Vonnegut (author, pacifist, humanist) Andy Warhol (artist) Leonard Weinglass (attorney) Alan Watts (philosopher) John Lennon & Paul McCartney Eric Clapton Reference works[edit] Bashe, Patricia R.; George-Warren, Holly; Pareles, Jon, eds. (2005) [1983]. The Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll. New York: Fireside. ISBN 0-7432-9201-4. Brackett, Nathan; Hoard, Christian, eds. (2004) [1979, 1983, 1992]. The New Rolling Stone Album Guide. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-0169-8. Miller, Jim (1980) [1976]. The Rolling Stone Illustrated History of Rock & Roll. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-394-51322-3. Rolling Stone Cover to Cover – the First 40 Years: Searchable Digital Archive-Every Page, Every Issue. Renton, WA: Bondi Digital Pub. 2007. ISBN 978-0-9795261-0-7. Swenson, John (1985). The Rolling Stone Jazz Record Guide. New York: Rolling Stone. ISBN 0-394-72643-X. International editions[edit] Argentina – Published by Publirevistas S. A. since April 1998. This edition also circulates in Bolivia, Paraguay and Uruguay. Australia – Rolling Stone Australia began as a supplement in 1969 in Go-Set magazine. It became a full title in 1972. It was published by Silvertongues from 1974 to 1987 and by Nextmedia Pty Ltd, Sydney until 2008. Notable editors and contributors include Paul and Jane Gardiner, Toby Creswell, Clinton Walker and Kathy Bail. It is now published by Bauer Media Group and is the longest running international edition. Brazil – Published in Brazil since October 2006 by Spring Comunicações. Bulgaria – Published in Bulgaria since November 2009 by Sivir Publications. Ceased publication as of the August/September 2011 issue. Chile – Published by Edu Comunicaciones from May 2003 to December 2005. Published by El Mercurio from January 2006 to December 2011. China – Rolling Stone in mainland China was licensed to One Media Group of Hong Kong and published in partnership with China Record Corporation in 2006. The magazine was in Chinese with translated articles and local content. It halted publication after one year. Croatia – Published since October 2013 - 2015 by S3 Mediji. This edition also circulates in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia and Slovenia. Colombia – Edited in Bogotá for Colombia, Ecuador, Perú, Panama and Venezuela, since 1991. France – Launched 2002. This edition temporarily ceased in 2007 and was relaunched in May 2008 under license with 1633SA publishing group. Germany – Published in Germany since 1994 by Axel Springer AG. India – Launched in March 2008 by MW Com, publishers of Man's World magazine. Indonesia – Published in Indonesia since June 2005 by a&e Media. Italy – Published in Italy since 1980. After ceasing publication in 1982, it was relaunched in November 2003, first by IXO Publishing, and then by Editrice Quadratum until April 2014. The magazine is currently published by Luciano Bernardini de Pace Editore.[73] Japan – Launched in March 2007 by International Luxury Media Co., Ltd. (ILM). Published by atomixmedia Inc. (?????????????? KK atomikkusumedia?) During her grandfather's reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, as the Prince of Wales was still young, and many assumed that he would marry and have children of his own.[15] When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second-in-line to the throne, after her father. Later that year Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis.[16] Consequently, Elizabeth's father became king, and she became heir presumptive. If her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first-in-line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession.[17] Elizabeth received private tuition in constitutional history from Henry Marten, Vice-Provost of Eton College,[18] and learned French from a succession of native-speaking governesses.[19] A Girl Guides company, the 1st Buckingham Palace Company, was formed specifically so that she could socialise with girls her own age.[20] Later, she was enrolled as a Sea Ranger.[19] In 1939, Elizabeth's parents toured Canada and the United States. As in 1927, when her parents had toured Australia and New Zealand, Elizabeth remained in Britain, since her father thought her too young to undertake public tours.[21] Elizabeth "looked tearful" as her parents departed.[22] They corresponded regularly,[22] and she and her parents made the first royal transatlantic telephone call on 18 May.[21] Second World War In September 1939, Britain entered the Second World War, which lasted until 1945. During the war, many of London's children were evacuated to avoid the frequent aerial bombing. The suggestion by senior politician Lord Hailsham[23] that the two princesses should be evacuated to Canada was rejected by Elizabeth's mother, who declared, "The children won't go without me. I won't leave without the King. And the King will never leave."[24] Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret stayed at Balmoral Castle, Scotland, until Christmas 1939, when they moved to Sandringham House, Norfolk.[25] From February to May 1940, they lived at Royal Lodge, Windsor, until moving to Windsor Castle, where they lived for most of the next five years.[26] At Windsor, the princesses staged pantomimes at Christmas in aid of the Queen's Wool Fund, which bought yarn to knit into military garments.[27] In 1940, the 14-year-old Elizabeth made her first radio broadcast during the BBC's Children's Hour, addressing other children who had been evacuated from the cities.[28] She stated: We are trying to do all we can to help our gallant sailors, soldiers and airmen, and we are trying, too, to bear our share of the danger and sadness of war. We know, every one of us, that in the end all will be well.[28] Elizabeth in Auxiliary Territorial Service uniform, April 1945 Princess Elizabeth (left, in uniform) on the balcony of Buckingham Palace with (left to right) her mother Queen Elizabeth, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, King George VI, and Princess Margaret, 8 May 1945 In 1943, at the age of 16, Elizabeth undertook her first solo public appearance on a visit to the Grenadier Guards, of which she had been appointed colonel the previous year.[29] As she approached her 18th birthday, the law was changed so that she could act as one of five Counsellors of State in the event of her father's incapacity or absence abroad, such as his visit to Italy in July 1944.[30] In February 1945, she joined the Women's Auxiliary Territorial Service as an honorary second subaltern with the service number of 230873.[31] She trained as a driver and mechanic and was promoted to honorary junior commander five months later.[32][33] At the end of the war in Europe, on Victory in Europe Day, Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret mingled anonymously with the celebratory crowds in the streets of London. Elizabeth later said in a rare interview, "We asked my parents if we could go out and see for ourselves. I remember we were terrified of being recognised ... I remember lines of unknown people linking arms and walking down Whitehall, all of us just swept along on a tide of happiness and relief."[34] During the war, plans were drawn up to quell Welsh nationalism by affiliating Elizabeth more closely with Wales. Proposals, such as appointing her Constable of Caernarfon Castle or a patron of Urdd Gobaith Cymru (the Welsh League of Youth), were abandoned for various reasons, which included a fear of associating Elizabeth with conscientious objectors in the Urdd, at a time when Britain was at war.[35] Welsh politicians suggested that she be made Princess of Wales on her 18th birthday. The idea was supported by the Home Secretary, Herbert Morrison, but rejected by the King because he felt such a title belonged solely to the wife of a Prince of Wales and the Prince of Wales had always been the heir apparent.[36] In 1946, she was inducted into the Welsh Gorsedd of Bards at the National Eisteddfod of Wales.[37] In 1947, Princess Elizabeth went on her first overseas tour, accompanying her parents through southern Africa. During the tour, in a broadcast to the British Commonwealth on her 21st birthday, she made the following pledge: I declare before you all that my whole life, whether it be long or short, shall be devoted to your service and the service of our great imperial family to which we all belong.[38] Marriage and family Main article: Wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Philip Mountbatten, Duke of Edinburgh Elizabeth met her future husband, Prince Philip of Greece and Denmark, in 1934 and 1937.[39] They are second cousins once removed through King Christian IX of Denmark and third cousins through Queen Victoria. After another meeting at the Royal Naval College in Dartmouth in July 1939, Elizabeth—though only 13 years old—said she fell in love with Philip and they began to exchange letters.[40] Their engagement was officially announced on 9 July 1947.[41] The engagement was not without controversy: Philip had no financial standing, was foreign-born (though a British subject who had served in the Royal Navy throughout the Second World War), and had sisters who had married German noblemen with Nazi links.[42] Marion Crawford wrote, "Some of the King's advisors did not think him good enough for her. He was a prince without a home or kingdom. Some of the papers played long and loud tunes on the string of Philip's foreign origin."[43] Elizabeth's mother was reported, in later biographies, to have opposed the union initially, even dubbing Philip "The Hun".[44] In later life, however, she told biographer Tim Heald that Philip was "an English gentleman".[45] Before the marriage, Philip renounced his Greek and Danish titles, converted from Greek Orthodoxy to Anglicanism, and adopted the style Lieutenant Philip Mountbatten, taking the surname of his mother's British family.[46] Just before the wedding, he was created Duke of Edinburgh and granted the style His Royal Highness.[47] Elizabeth and Philip were married on 20 November 1947 at Westminster Abbey. They received 2500 wedding gifts from around the world.[48] Because Britain had not yet completely recovered from the devastation of the war, Elizabeth required ration coupons to buy the material for her gown, which was designed by Norman Hartnell.[49] In post-war Britain, it was not acceptable for the Duke of Edinburgh's German relations, including his three surviving sisters, to be invited to the wedding.[50] The Duke of Windsor, formerly King Edward VIII, was not invited either.[51] Elizabeth gave birth to her first child, Prince Charles, on 14 November 1948. One month earlier, the King had issued letters patent allowing her children to use the style and title of a royal prince or princess, to which they otherwise would not have been entitled as their father was no longer a royal prince.[52] A second child, Princess Anne, was born in 1950.[53] Following their wedding, the couple leased Windlesham Moor, near Windsor Castle, until 4 July 1949,[48] when they took up residence at Clarence House in London. At various times between 1949 and 1951, the Duke of Edinburgh was stationed in the British Crown Colony of Malta as a serving Royal Navy officer. He and Elizabeth lived intermittently, for several months at a time, in the hamlet of Gwardamanga, at Villa Guardamangia, the rented home of Philip's uncle, Lord Mountbatten. The children remained in Britain.[54] Reign Accession and coronation Elizabeth in crown and robes next to her husband in military uniform Coronation portrait of Queen Elizabeth II and the Duke of Edinburgh, June 1953 Coronation of Elizabeth II Main article: Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II During 1951, George VI's health declined and Elizabeth frequently stood in for him at public events. When she toured Canada and visited President Harry S. Truman in Washington, D.C., in October 1951, her private secretary, Martin Charteris, carried a draft accession declaration in case the King died while she was on tour.[55] In early 1952, Elizabeth and Philip set out for a tour of Australia and New Zealand by way of Kenya. On 6 February 1952, they had just returned to their Kenyan home, Sagana Lodge, after a night spent at Treetops Hotel, when word arrived of the death of the King and consequently Elizabeth's immediate accession to the throne. Philip broke the news to the new Queen.[56] Martin Charteris asked her to choose a regnal name; she chose to remain Elizabeth, "of course".[57] She was proclaimed queen throughout her realms and the royal party hastily returned to the United Kingdom.[58] She and the Duke of Edinburgh moved into Buckingham Palace.[59] With Elizabeth's accession, it seemed probable that the royal house would bear her husband's name, becoming the House of Mountbatten, in line with the custom of a wife taking her husband's surname on marriage. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Elizabeth's grandmother, Queen Mary, favoured the retention of the House of Windsor, and so on 9 April 1952 Elizabeth issued a declaration that Windsor would continue to be the name of the royal house. The Duke complained, "I am the only man in the country not allowed to give his name to his own children."[60] In 1960, after the death of Queen Mary in 1953 and the resignation of Churchill in 1955, the surname Mountbatten-Windsor was adopted for Philip and Elizabeth's male-line descendants who do not carry royal titles.[61] Amid preparations for the coronation, Princess Margaret informed her sister that she wished to marry Peter Townsend, a divorcé‚ 16 years Margaret's senior, with two sons from his previous marriage. The Queen asked them to wait for a year; in the words of Martin Charteris, "the Queen was naturally sympathetic towards the Princess, but I think she thought—she hoped—given time, the affair would peter out."[62] Senior politicians were against the match and the Church of England did not permit remarriage after divorce. If Margaret had contracted a civil marriage, she would have been expected to renounce her right of succession.[63] Eventually, she decided to abandon her plans with Townsend.[64] In 1960, she married Antony Armstrong-Jones, who was created Earl of Snowdon the following year. They were divorced in 1978; she did not remarry.[65] Despite the death of Queen Mary on 24 March, the coronation on 2 June 1953 went ahead as planned, as Mary had asked before she died.[66] The ceremony in Westminster Abbey, with the exception of the anointing and communion, was televised for the first time.[67][d] Elizabeth's coronation gown was embroidered on her instructions with the floral emblems of Commonwealth countries:[71] English Tudor rose; Scots thistle; Welsh leek; Irish shamrock; Australian wattle; Canadian maple leaf; New Zealand silver fern; South African protea; lotus flowers for India and Ceylon; and Pakistan's wheat, cotton, and jute.[72] Continuing evolution of the Commonwealth Further information: Historical development of the Commonwealth realms, from the Queen's accession The Commonwealth realms (pink) and their territories and protectorates (red) at the beginning of Elizabeth II's reign A formal group of Elizabeth in tiara and evening dress with eleven politicians in evening dress or national costume. Elizabeth II and Commonwealth leaders at the 1960 Commonwealth Conference, Windsor Castle From Elizabeth's birth onwards, the British Empire continued its transformation into the Commonwealth of Nations.[73] By the time of her accession in 1952, her role as head of multiple independent states was already established.[74] Spanning 1953–54, the Queen and her husband embarked on a six-month around-the-world tour. She became the first reigning monarch of Australia and New Zealand to visit those nations.[75] During the tour, crowds were immense; three-quarters of the population of Australia were estimated to have seen her.[76] Throughout her reign, the Queen has undertaken state visits to foreign countries and tours of Commonwealth ones and she is the most widely travelled head of state.[77] In 1956, French Prime Minister Guy Mollet and British Prime Minister Sir Anthony Eden discussed the possibility of France joining the Commonwealth. The proposal was never accepted and the following year France signed the Treaty of Rome, which established the European Economic Community, the precursor of the European Union.[78] In November 1956, Britain and France invaded Egypt in an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to capture the Suez Canal. Lord Mountbatten claimed the Queen was opposed to the invasion, though Eden denied it. Eden resigned two months later.[79] The absence of a formal mechanism within the Conservative Party for choosing a leader meant that, following Eden's resignation, it fell to the Queen to decide whom to commission to form a government. Eden recommended that she consult Lord Salisbury, the Lord President of the Council. Lord Salisbury and Lord Kilmuir, the Lord Chancellor, consulted the British Cabinet, Winston Churchill, and the Chairman of the backbench 1922 Committee, resulting in the Queen appointing their recommended candidate: Harold Macmillan.[80] The Suez crisis and the choice of Eden's successor led in 1957 to the first major personal criticism of the Queen. In a magazine, which he owned and edited,[81] Lord Altrincham accused her of being "out of touch".[82] Altrincham was denounced by public figures and slapped by a member of the public appalled by his comments.[83] Aleksejs Širovs born – chess player Andris Škele born – politician Prime Minister of Latvia Armands Škele – basketball player Ksenia Solo born – actress Ernests Štalbergs – – architect ensemble of the Freedom Monument Izaks Nahmans Šteinbergs – – politician lawyer and author Maris Štrombergs – BMX cyclist gold medal winner at and Olympics T edit Esther Takeuchi born – materials scientist and chemical engineer Mihails Tals – – the th World Chess Champion Janis Roberts Tilbergs – – painter sculptor U edit Guntis Ulmanis born – president of Latvia Karlis Ulmanis – – prime minister and president of Latvia


abby-lane abby-rode abigail-clayton ada-tauler addie-juniper addison-cain adele-wiesenthal adeline-lange adeline-pollicina adriana-amante adrianna-laurenti adrianna-russo agnes agnes-ardant agnes-zalontai aimee-addison aisha-sun aja aleena-ferari alessandra-schiavo aletta-ocean alexandra-nice alexandria-cass alexa-parks alex-dane alex-foxe alexia-knight alexis-devell alexis-firestone alexis-greco alexis-payne alexis-x alex-storm alex-white aliana-love alice-springs alicia-alighatti alicia-monet alicia-rio alicyn-sterling alighiera-olena ali-moore aline-santos alissa-ashley allysin-chaynes alysin-embers alyssa-love alyssa-reece amanda-addams amanda-blake amanda-blue amanda-jane-adams amanda-rae amanda-stone amanda-tyler amber-hunt amberlina-lynn amber-lynn amber-michaels amber-peach amber-wild amber-woods ambrosia-fox amia-miley ami-rodgers amy-allison amy-brooke amy-rose amy-starz anastasia-christ anastasia-sands andrea-adams andrea-brittian andrea-lange andrea-true andy angel angela-baron angela-summers angel-barrett angel-cash angel-cruz angel-cummings angel-ducharme angelica-sin angelika-reschner angelina-brasini angelina-korrs angelina-valentine angel-kelly angel-long angel-west angie-knight anita-andic anita-blond anita-cannibal anita-dark anna-belle anna-malle anna-nikova anna-pierce anna-ventura anna-veruska anne-bie-warburg anne-libert anne-magle anne-sand annette-haven annie-sprinkle ann-kiray ann-marie-michelle antonia-dorian april-flowers april-may april-west arcadia-lake ariana-bali ariana-jollee arlana-blue ashley-anne ashley-brooks ashley-coda ashley-fires ashley-lauren ashley-long ashley-marie ashley-nicole ashley-perk ashley-renee ashley-robbins ashley-welles ashley-wells ashley-winger ashlyn-gere astrid-bone athena-star aubrey-nichols aurora aurora-snow autumn-bliss autumn-rayne ava-devine ava-lauren avalon ava-marteens avy-lee-roth bailey-monroe bambi-allen barbara-bourbon barbara-boutet barbara-dare barbara-doll barbara-moose barbarella barbie-angel barbie-doll barett-moore bea-fiedler beata beatrice-poggi beatrice-valle becky-savage becky-sunshine belinda-butterfield bella-donna bethany-sweet beverly-bliss beverly-glen biggi-stenzhorn bionca black-widow blond-cat blondi blue-angel bobbi-bliss bobbi-dean bobbie-burns bonnie-holiday brandee brandi-edwards brandy-alexandre brandy-dean brandy-lee brandy-smile brandy-wine bree-anthony breezy-lane brenda-basse briana-blair bridgette-belle bridgette-monet bridgette-monroe bridget-waters brigitte-lahaie brigitte-monnin brigitte-verbecq brittany brittany-stryker britt-corvin britt-morgan bronze brooke-bennett brooke-fields brooke-haven brooke-west brook-van-buuren buffy-davis bunnie-blake bunny-bleu bunny-hatton busty-belle cali-caramel calisyn-heart cameo cameron-love camila-sampaio camilla-rhodes camille-morgan camrie-foxxx candace-daley candi candida-royalle candie-evens candi-summers candy-apples candy-barr candy-hill candy-samples candy-stanton cara-lott caressa-savage carmel-nougat carmen-blonde carmen-de-la-torre carmen-moore carmen-rose carol-connors carol-cross carol-cummings carole-dubois carole-gire carole-pierac carol-titian carolyn-connoly carolyn-monroe carrie-cruise cassandra-leigh cassidy cassie-courtland cataline-bullock catherine-count catherine-crystal catherine-ringer catherine-tailleferre cathy-delorme cathy-menard cathy-stewart celeste-fox celine-gallone chanel-preston chanel-price chantal-virapin chanta-rose chantelle-stevens charisma charisma-cole charlie-latour charlie-waters charlotte-de-castille charmane-star chasey-lain chayse-manhattan chaz-vincent chelsea-sinclaire chennin-blanc cheri-janvier cheri-taylor cherry-hill chessie-moore cheyenne-hunter cheyenne-silver china-lee china-leigh china-moon chloe-cruize chloe-dior chloe-kez chloe-stevens chris-collins chris-jordan chris-petersen chrissie-beauchamp christa-abel christa-ludwig christie-ford christi-lake christina-berg christina-blond christina-evol christina-skye christine-black christine-chavert christine-neona christine-rigoler christy-canyon cicciolina cindi-stephens cindy-carver cindy-crawford cindy-more cindy-shepard cindy-wong cinthya-marinho clair-dia claire-robbins claude-janna claudia-jackson claudia-jamsson claudia-mehringer claudia-nero claudia-van-statt claudia-zante claudine-beccarie clea-carson cleo-nichole cleo-patra cody-lane cody-love cody-nicole coffee-brown colleen-brennan connie-bennett connie-peterson constance-money copper-penny coreena corey-everson corinne-lemoine corneliah cory-everson cory-wolf courtney courtney-cummz courtney-james cris-cassidy crissy-moran cris-taliana crystal-breeze crystal-dawn crystal-holland crystal-knight crystal-lake crystal-lovin crystal-sync csilla-kalnay cuban-bee cynara-fox cyndee-summers cynthia-black cynthia-brooks cynthia-hammers cynthia-lavigne dagmar-lost daisy-layne dallas-miko dana-dylan dana-lynn danica-rhea daniela-nanou daniela-schiffer daniele-troeger daniella daniella-schiffer danielle danielle-foxxx danielle-rodgers danny-ricci danyel-cheeks daphne daphne-rosen darby-lloyd-rains darla-crane darla-delovely davia-ardell dayton-rain debbie-northrup debbie-revenge debbie-van-gils debi-diamond debi-jointed debra-lynn deidra-hopkins deidre-holland delania-raffino delia-moore delphine-thail delta-force delta-white demi-moor denice-klarskov denise-derringer denise-dior denise-sloan desiree-cousteau desiree-foxx desiree-lane desiree-west deva-station devin-devasquez devinn-lane devon-shire dia diana-holt diana-kisabonyi diana-siefert diana-stevenson diane-dubois diane-richards diane-sloan diane-suresne dido-angel dillan-lauren dina-deville dina-jewel dina-pearl ditty-blue diva divinity-love djiana dolly-darkley dominique dominique-dewitt dominique-saint-claire donna-hart donna-marie dorle-buchner dorothy-lemay dorothy-onan drea drimla dru-berrymore dusty-rose dyanna-lauren ebony-ayes edina-blond edita-ungerova edwige-faillel eileen-wells elaine-southern elena-berkova elena-maria-ricci eleonore-melzer elisabeth-bure elis-black elise elise-di-medici elle-devyne elle-rio elodie-delage elsa-maroussia elza-brown emili-doll emily-evermoore emily-george emily-jewel emmanuelle-pareze envy-mi erica-boyer erica-eaton erica-havens erica-idol erica-lauren erika-bella erika-cool erika-heaven erika-lockett esme-monroe eva-allen eva-angel eva-dionisio eva-gross eva-kleber eva-lux eva-uettori eve-laurence evelyne-lang evie-delatosso fabiana-venturi faith-stevens fallon fanny-garreau fanny-steel faye-runaway flame flick-shagwell flore-soller flower france-lomay france-quenie francoise frankie-leigh gabriella gabriella-mirelba gabriella-vincze gail-force gail-palmer gail-sterling georgette-saunders georgia-peach georgina-spelvin gia-givanna gianna-lynn gili-sky gina-carrera gina-gianetti gina-janssen gina-lee gina-martell gina-valentino ginger-jay ginger-lee ginger-lynn ginny-noack giovanna gisela-schwarz giselle-monet gladys-laroche gloria-leonard gloria-todd golden-jade greta-carlson greta-milos guia-lauri-filzi gwenda-farnel hare-krane harley-raine hayley-jade hazel-young heather-deeley heather-ellis heather-hart heather-lere heather-lyn heather-manfield heather-thomas heather-torrance heather-wayne heather-young helen-madigan helen-thomas helga-sven helga-wild hillary-summers holly-hollywood holly-joy holly-page holly-ryder honey-winter hottie-hollie hyapatia-lee ida-fabry ildiko-smits illana-moor ines-ridere ingrid-choray isabella-dior isabella-soprano isabelle-allay isabelle-brell isabelle-marchall isobel-wren iveta ivette-blanche jackie-right jacqueline-lorians jacy-allen jada-stevens jade-east jade-hsu jade-marcela jade-summers jade-wong jahn-gold jamie-brooks jamie-james jamie-summers jana-irrova jana-mrazkova jane-baker jane-darling jane-iwanoff jane-lindsay jane-lixx janet-jacme janey-robbins jasmine-delatori jayden-simone jaylyn-rose jayna-woods jazella-moore jazmin-luna-gold jean-afrique jeanette-littledove jeanie-marie-sullivan jean-jennings jeanna-fine jeannie-pepper jenna-jameson jenna-jane jenna-presley jenna-wells jennifer-haussmann jennifer-janes jennifer-jordan jennifer-morante jennifer-noxt jennifer-stewart jennifer-welles jennifer-west jenny jenny-feeling jenny-fields jenny-wings jersey-jaxin jesie-st-james jesse-capelli jessica-bangkok jessica-bogart jessica-darlin jessica-fiorentino jessica-gabriel jessica-laine jessica-may jessica-road jessica-wylde jessi-foster jill-ferari jill-kelly joana-redgrave joan-devlon joanna-storm joanna-sweet jody-maxwell joelle-lequement joelle-petinot johnni-black jordana-james jordan-green jordan-nevaeh jordan-star josephine-carrington joslyn-james julia-chanel julia-dal-fuoco juliana-grandi julia-paes julia-parton julia-perrin julia-swen julia-thomas julie-meadows julie-rage julie-simone juliet-anderson juliet-graham juliette-carelton kacey-jordan kagney-linn-karter kaitlyn-ashley kalena-rios kami-andrews kamila-smith kandee-licks kandi-barbour kapri-styles kara-nox karen-summer kari-foxx karine-gambier karin-schubert karli-sweet karmen-kennedy karol-castro kascha kassi-nova kat kate-frost kate-jones kathia-nobili kathleen-gentry kathleen-white kathy-divan kathy-harcourt kathy-heart kathy-kash katie-cummings katja-love kat-langer katrina-isis katrina-kraven katy-borman katy-caro kaycee-dean kayla-kupcakes kay-parker k-c-valentine keama-kim keira-moon keisha keli-richards kelli-tyler kelly-adams kelly-blue kelly-broox kelly-hearn kelly-kay kelly-kline kelly-nichols kelly-royce kelly-skyline kendra-kay kenzi-marie keri-windsor ketthy-divan kianna-dior kiley-heart kim-alexis kimber-blake kimberly-carson kimberly-kane kimberly-kyle kim-de-place kim-holland kimi-gee kimkim-de kim-kitaine kimmie-lee kimmy-nipples kina-kara kira-eggers kira-red kirsty-waay kitty-langdon kitty-lynxxx kitty-marie kitty-shayne kitty-yung kora-cummings kris-lara krista-lane krista-maze kristara-barrington kristarah-knight kristi-klenot kristina-blonde kristina-king kristina-klevits kristina-soderszk kristine-heller kristin-steen krisztina-ventura krystal-de-boor krystal-steal kylee-karr kylee-nash kylie-brooks kylie-channel kylie-haze kylie-wylde kym-wilde kyoto-sun lachelle-marie lacy-rose lady-amanda-wyldefyre lady-stephanie laetitia-bisset lana-burner lana-cox lana-wood lara-amour lara-roxx lara-stevens lataya-roxx latoya laura-clair laura-lazare laura-lion laura-may laura-orsolya laura-paouck laura-zanzibar lauren-black laurence-boutin lauren-montgomery laurien-dominique laurien-wilde laurie-smith lauryl-canyon lauryn-may leah-wilde lea-magic lea-martini leanna-foxxx lee-caroll leigh-livingston leilani lenora-bruce leslie-winston lesllie-bovee letizia-bruni lexi-lane lexi-matthews lezley-zen lia-fire liliane-gray liliane-lemieuvre lili-marlene lily-gilder lily-labeau lily-rodgers lily-valentine linda-shaw linda-vale linda-wong linnea-quigley lisa-bright lisa-de-leeuw lisa-k-loring lisa-lake lisa-melendez lisa-sue-corey lise-pinson little-oral-annie liza-dwyer liza-harper lizzy-borden logan-labrent lois-ayres lola-cait long-jean-silver loni-bunny loni-sanders loona-luxx lorelei-lee lorelei-rand lorena-sanchez lori-alexia lori-blue lorrie-lovett luci-diamond lucie-doll lucie-theodorova lucy-van-dam lydia-baum lynn-franciss lynn-lemay lynn-ray lynn-stevens lynx-canon lysa-thatcher madelina-ray madison-parker magdalena-lynn maggie-randall mai-lin mandi-wine mandy-bright mandy-malone mandy-may mandy-mistery mandy-starr marcia-minor maren margit-ojetz margitta-hofer margo-stevens margot-mahler mariah-cherry marianne-aubert maria-tortuga marie-anne marie-christine-chireix marie-christine-veroda marie-claude-moreau marie-dominique-cabannes marie-france-morel marie-luise-lusewitz marie-sharp marilyn-chambers marilyne-leroy marilyn-gee marilyn-jess marilyn-martyn marilyn-star marina-hedman marion-webb marita-ekberg marita-kemper marlena marlene-willoughby marry-queen martine-grimaud martine-schultz maryanne-fisher mary-hubay mary-ramunno mary-stuart mascha-mouton maud-kennedy mauvais-denoir maxine-tyler maya-black maya-france megan-leigh megan-martinez megan-reece mei-ling melanie-hotlips melanie-scott melba-cruz melinda-russell melissa-bonsardo melissa-del-prado melissa-golden melissa-martinez melissa-melendez melissa-monet mercedes-dragon mercedes-lynn merle-michaels mesha-lynn mia-beck mia-lina mia-smiles michele-raven michelle-aston michelle-ferrari michelle-greco michelle-maren michelle-maylene michelle-monroe micki-lynn mika-barthel mika-tan mikki-taylor mimi-morgan mindy-rae ming-toy miranda-stevens miss-bunny miss-meadow miss-pomodoro missy missy-graham missy-stone missy-vega misti-jane mistress-candice misty-anderson misty-dawn misty-rain misty-regan mona-lisa mona-page moni monica-baal monica-swinn monika-peta monika-sandmayr monika-unco monique-bruno monique-cardin monique-charell monique-demoan monique-gabrielle monique-la-belle morgan-fairlane morrigan-hel moxxie-maddron mulani-rivera mysti-may nadege-arnaud nadia-styles nadine-bronx nadine-proutnal nadine-roussial nadi-phuket nanci-suiter nancy-hoffman nancy-vee natacha-delyro natalia-wood natalli-diangelo natascha-throat natasha-skyler naudia-nyce nessa-devil nessy-grant nesty nicki-hunter nicky-reed nicole-berg nicole-bernard nicole-black nicole-grey nicole-london nicole-parks nicole-scott nicole-taylor nicolette-fauludi nicole-west nika-blond nika-mamic niki-cole nikita-love nikita-rush nikki-charm nikki-grand nikki-king nikki-knight nikki-randall nikki-rhodes nikki-santana nikki-steele nikki-wilde niko nina-cherry nina-deponca nina-hartley nina-preta oana-efria obaya-roberts olesja-derevko olga-cabaeva olga-conti olga-pechova olga-petrova olivia-alize olivia-del-rio olivia-flores olivia-la-roche olivia-outre ophelia-tozzi orchidea-keresztes orsolya-blonde paige-turner paisley-hunter pamela-bocchi pamela-jennings pamela-mann pamela-stanford pamela-stealt pandora paola-albini pascale-vital pat-manning pat-rhea patricia-dale patricia-diamond patricia-kennedy patricia-rhomberg patrizia-predan patti-cakes patti-petite paula-brasile paula-harlow paula-morton paula-price paula-winters pauline-teutscher penelope-pumpkins penelope-valentin petra-hermanova petra-lamas peyton-lafferty phaedra-grant pia-snow piper-fawn pipi-anderson porsche-lynn porsha-carrera precious-silver priscillia-lenn purple-passion queeny-love rachel-ashley rachel-love rachel-luv rachel-roxxx rachel-ryan rachel-ryder racquel-darrian rane-revere raven reagan-maddux rebecca-bardoux regan-anthony regine-bardot regula-mertens reina-leone reka-gabor renae-cruz renee-foxx renee-lovins renee-morgan renee-perez renee-summers renee-tiffany rhonda-jo-petty rikki-blake riley-ray rio-mariah rita-ricardo roberta-gemma roberta-pedon robin-byrd robin-cannes robin-everett robin-sane rochell-starr rosa-lee-kimball rosemarie roxanne-blaze roxanne-hall roxanne-rollan ruby-richards sabina-k sabre sabrina-chimaera sabrina-dawn sabrina-jade sabrina-johnson sabrina-love-cox sabrina-mastrolorenzi sabrina-rose sabrina-scott sabrina-summers sacha-davril sahara sahara-sands sai-tai-tiger samantha-fox samantha-ryan samantha-sterlyng samantha-strong samueline-de-la-rosa sandra-cardinale sandra-de-marco sandra-kalermen sandra-russo sandy-lee sandy-pinney sandy-reed sandy-samuel sandy-style sandy-summers sara-brandy-canyon sara-faye sarah-bernard sarah-cabrera sarah-hevyn sarah-mills sarah-shine sara-sloane sasha sasha-hollander sasha-ligaya sasha-rose satine-phoenix satin-summer savannah-stern savanna-jane scarlet-scarleau scarlet-windsor seka selena serena serena-south severine-amoux shana-evans shanna-mccullough shannon-kelly shannon-rush shantell-day sharon-da-vale sharon-kane sharon-mitchell shaun-michelle shawna-sexton shawnee-cates shay-hendrix shayne-ryder sheena-horne sheer-delight shelby-star shelby-stevens shelly-berlin shelly-lyons sheri-st-clair sheyla-cats shonna-lynn shyla-foxxx shy-love sierra-sinn sierra-skye sigrun-theil silver-starr silvia-bella silvia-saint silvie-de-lux silvy-taylor simone-west sindee-coxx sindy-lange sindy-shy siobhan-hunter skylar-knight skylar-price skyler-dupree smokie-flame smoking-mary-jane solange-shannon sonya-summers sophia-santi sophie-call sophie-duflot sophie-evans sophie-guers stacey-donovan stacy-lords stacy-moran stacy-nichols stacy-silver stacy-thorn starla-fox starr-wood stefania-bruni stella-virgin stephanie-duvalle stephanie-rage stephanie-renee stevie-taylor summer-knight summer-rose sunny-day sunset-thomas sunshine-seiber susan-hart susanne-brend susan-nero susi-hotkiss suzanne-mcbain suzan-nielsen suzie-bartlett suzie-carina suzi-sparks sweet-nice sweety-pie sybille-rossani sylvia-benedict sylvia-bourdon sylvia-brand sylvia-engelmann syreeta-taylor syren-de-mer syvette szabina-black szilvia-lauren tai-ellis taija-rae taisa-banx talia-james tamara-lee tamara-longley tamara-n-joy tamara-west tami-white tammy tammy-lee tammy-reynolds tania-lorenzo tantala-ray tanya-danielle tanya-fox tanya-foxx tanya-lawson tanya-valis tara-aire tasha-voux tatjana-belousova tatjana-skomorokhova tawnee-lee tawny-pearl tayla-rox taylor-wane teddi-austin teddi-barrett tera-bond tera-heart tera-joy teresa-may teresa-orlowski teri-diver teri-weigel terri-dolan terri-hall tess-ferre tess-newheart thais-vieira tia-cherry tianna tiara tiffany-blake tiffany-clark tiffany-duponte tiffany-rayne tiffany-rousso tiffany-storm tiffany-towers tiffany-tyler tiger-lily tigr timea-vagvoelgyi tina-blair tina-burner tina-evil tina-gabriel tina-loren tina-marie tina-russell tish-ambrose tommi-rose tonisha-mills topsy-curvey tori-secrets tori-sinclair tori-welles tracey-adams traci-lords traci-topps traci-winn tracy-duzit tracy-love tracy-williams tricia-devereaux tricia-yen trinity-loren trisha-rey trista-post trixie-tyler ultramax ursula-gaussmann ursula-moore uschi-karnat valentina valerie-leveau valery-hilton vanessa-chase vanessa-del-rio vanessa-michaels vanessa-ozdanic vanilla-deville velvet-summers veri-knotty veronica-dol veronica-hart veronica-hill veronica-rayne veronica-sage veronika-vanoza via-paxton vicky-lindsay vicky-vicci victoria-evans victoria-gold victoria-knight victoria-luna victoria-paris victoria-slick victoria-zdrok viper virginie-caprice vivian-valentine vivien-martines wendi-white wendy-divine whitney-banks whitney-fears whitney-wonders wonder-tracey wow-nikki xanthia-berstein yasmine-fitzgerald yelena-shieffer yvonne-green zara-whites zsanett-egerhazi zuzie-boobies

In June the AFL national organization in session in Atlantic City New Jersey passed resolutions in opposition to the general strike The official report of these proceedings described the convention as the "largest and in all probability the most important Convention ever held" by the organization in part for having engineered the "overwhelming defeat of the so called Radical element" via crushing a "One Big Union proposition" and also for defeating a proposal for a nationwide general strike both "by a vote of more than to " The AFL amended its constitution to disallow any central labor union i e regional labor councils from "taking a strike vote without prior authorization of the national officers of the union concerned " The change was intended to "check the spread of general strike sentiment and prevent recurrences of what happened at Seattle and is now going on at Winnepeg " The penalty for any unauthorized strike vote was revocation of that body's charter Notable general strikes edit The largest general strike that ever stopped the economy of an advanced industrial country – and the first general wildcat strike in history – was May in France The prolonged strike involved eleven million workers for two weeks in a row and its impact was such that it almost caused the collapse of the de Gaulle government Other notable general strikes include BC The Aventine Secession Ancient Rome creating the Tribune of the Plebs BC A secessio plebis leading to the adoption of the Twelve Tables BC A secessio plebis leading to the adoption of the Lex Hortensia Note "plebeian secession" was a tactic used by the Roman plebs of vacating a city entirely and leaving its ruling elite to fend for itself thus an even more radical action than a "general strike" yet unlike the latter term it does not pertain to withholding labor within a wage system General strikes in the current sense of the term only begin to take place in a context where in which labor is treated as a commodity and wage workers collectively organize to halt production Philadelphia General Strike Philadelphia Pennsylvania General Strike Great Britain The plantation general strike in the Confederate States of the U S St Louis general strike St Louis Missouri an outgrowth of the Great Railroad Strike of in the United States Walloon jacquerie of Wallonia New Orleans General Strike New Orleans Louisiana U S Belgian general strike of Belgium Geneva General Strike of Switzerland The Great October Strike Russia see Russian Revolution World's largest general strike Geneva General Strike of Switzerland New Orleans Levee General Strike United States A general strike coupled with a major uprising in Barcelona Swedish General Strike Uprising of the New York NY U S Brisbane General Strike Australia Zurich General Strike of Switzerland Australian General Strike Brazilian General Strike Spanish General Strike Swiss General Strike Barcelona General Strike Spain Winnipeg General Strike Winnipeg Manitoba Canada Seattle General Strike Seattle Washington U S General Strike in Basel and Zurich Switzerland General strike in Germany to stop Kapp Putsch Romanian general strike Italian General Strike German passive resistance strikes at the Ruhr UK General Strike of French general strike of Geneva General Strike of Switzerland West Coast Longshoremen's Strike US Minneapolis Teamsters Strike US Toledo Auto Lite Strike US Palestinian general strike French general strike of Syrian General Strike French general strike of Secessio plebis withdrawal of the commoners or Secession of the Plebs was an informal exercise of power by Rome's plebeian citizens similar to a general strike taken to the extreme During a secessio plebis the plebs would simply abandon the city en masse and leave the patrician order to themselves Therefore a secessio meant that all shops and workshops would shut down and commercial transactions would largely cease This was an effective strategy in the Conflict of the Orders due to strength in numbers plebeian citizens made up the vast majority of Rome's populace and produced most of its food and resources while a patrician citizen was a member of the minority upper class the equivalent of the landed gentry of later times Authors report different numbers for how many secessions there were Cary & Scullard state there were five between BC and BC Contents hide Secessions in Roman history BC BC BC BC BC The first secessio plebis of B C was an event in ancient Roman political and social history between and BC involving a dispute between the patrician ruling class and the plebeian underclass and was one of a number of secessions by the plebs and part of a broader political conflict known as the conflict of the orders The Secession of the People to the Mons Sacer engraving by B Barloccini The secession was initially sparked by discontent about the burden of debt on the poorer plebeian class The failure of the patrician rulers including the consuls and more generally the senate to address those complaints and subsequently the senate's outright refusal to agree to debt reforms caused the issue to flare into a more widespread concern about plebeian rights As a result the plebeians seceded and departed to the nearby Mons Sacer the Sacred Mountain Ultimately a reconciliation was negotiated and the plebs were given political representation by the creation of the office of the Tribune of the Plebs Contents hide Background Prelude First interlude Tensions increase Second interlude Climax and secession Reconciliation and reform Aftermath Bibliography References Background edit The last king of Rome had been expelled in BC and the Roman Republic had been established In the place of the kings the city state was governed by two consuls elected annually and serving in office for twelve months Other government institutions included the senate and various assemblies of the people At this time the consuls were elected from amongst the patricians who were the upper class in Rome Likewise the senate was composed only of patricians The consuls and the senate together exercised the executive and majority of the legislative functions at Rome The patricians therefore possessed most of the political powers at Rome and were also generally more wealthy The plebeians on the other hand were the majority of the population and also the majority of the soldiers in the Roman army Prelude edit In BC shortly after the significant Roman victory over the Latins at the Battle of Lake Regillus rumours had reached Rome of the threat of war from the Volsci A Roman army under the consul Publius Servilius Priscus Structus entered and then returned from the Volscian lands seemingly having averted war without shedding any blood Upon the army's return from war the people of Rome began to complain about the terrors to which they were subject on account of debt Debtors they complained were being imprisoned and beaten by certain money lenders Livy records that a former army officer now advanced in years threw himself into the forum His clothes were dirty his body pale and thin and he bore also a long beard and hair which gave him an impression of wildness He was recognised by the people and they recalled the honours he had achieved in battle and he displayed his battle scars Then he told them how he had come to such a state that whilst serving in war against the Sabines the enemy had ravaged his rural property burnt his house pillaged his possessions and stolen his cattle Furthermore a tax had then been imposed on him and he had borrowed money to pay the tax but due to usury he had been forced to give up his grandfather's farm then his father's and then another final property When he was able to pay no more he had been taken by the creditors into a prison and threatened with death He then displayed the whip marks upon his back The people were outraged and uproar spread throughout Rome Debtors from around the city hurried into the streets and implored the people for protection and a great crowd gathered in the forum The consuls Servilius and Appius Claudius Sabinus Inregillensis attended the forum and the people demanded that the senate be convened However so many senators refused to attend out of fear that there were insufficient of them to come to any decision The people became suspicious that their demands were being stymied and violence was so close to breaking out that the senators felt compelled to act and they convened in the senate house Nevertheless the senate was struck by indecision One of the consuls Appius because of his harsh temper called for the uprising to be quelled by the authority of the consuls The other consul Servilius who was of a more mild disposition called for some concession to be granted to the populace to convince them to retire from the forum First interlude edit A number of foreign disturbances now intervened Some Latin horsemen arrived in Rome to announce that a Volscian army had invaded their territories and requested Roman assistance The Roman people refused to enroll as soldiers on account of their outstanding complaints The senate dejected sent the consul Servilius to attempt to break the impasse Servilius proceeded to the assembly and advised the people that the senate had been giving consideration to measures to alleviate the public concerns but had been interrupted by news of the invasion He exhorted the people to put aside their complaints momentarily to allow Rome united to face the common enemy Further he announced an edict that no Roman citizen should be detained either in chains or in prison from enrolling to fight and that no soldier should whilst serving in the army have his goods seized or sold nor his children or grandchildren arrested Immediately the debtors who had been under arrest were released and enrolled their names and following them crowds of the Roman people congregated in the forum to take the military oath Immediately afterwards Servilius led out the army to face the Volsci The Volsci initially sought to take advantage of the Roman divisions by making an attempt on the Roman camp in the night in order to elicit some treachery or desertions however the Romans remained united and on the following day the Volsci were defeated and the town of Suessa Pometia plundered There were further military engagements against the Sabines in which the Roman cavalry led by Aulus Postumius Albus Regillensis and the infantry led by Servilius achieved a speedy victory and against the Aurunci in which the Romans again led by Servilius achieved the victory Tensions increase edit The troops returned to Rome and the people anticipated the consuls and the senate taking steps to address the popular concerns relating to debt However the situation was inflamed by the consul Appius who acted contrary to popular expectations by issuing severe decrees regarding debt with the effect that debtors who had previously been released from imprisonment were delivered back to their creditors and further persons were taken into custody A soldier to whom the new decree applied made appeals to the other consul Servilius and a crowd gathered to remind Servilius of his previous promises and also of the people's service in war and called upon him to bring the matter before the senate But the mood of the patricians was in favour of the approach of Appius and so Servilius was left in a position where he could take no steps to intervene on behalf of the people and earned the disfavour of both factions as a result the senators thought him weak and a populist whereas the people thought he had betrayed their trust Meanwhile the consuls were unable to decide upon which of them should dedicate a new temple to Mercury The senate referred the decision to the popular assembly and also decreed that whichever consul was chosen should also exercise additional duties including presiding over the markets establish a merchants' guild and exercise the functions of the pontifex maximus The people in order to spite the senate and the consuls instead awarded the honour to the senior military officer of one of the legions named Marcus Laetorius The senate was outraged at this turn of events as was one of the consuls in particular However the people were not restrained Upon seeing a debtor being led to the courts a mob formed and violence erupted The crowd protected the debtors and turned instead upon the creditors The consul's decrees were barely heard and ignored and the creditors were harassed within sight of one of the consuls Hostilities with the Sabines now led to a decree from the senate for enrolment of the army levies However the decree was ignored and nobody enrolled Appius was incensed He blamed Servilius and said that Servilius by his silence had betrayed the republic by failing to pass sentence upon the debtors and to enrol the army levies Appius vowed that by himself he would uphold the republic and the dignity of his office and of the senate He sought to intervene by ordering the arrest of one of the ringleaders of the sedition The lictors seized the man and sought to carry him away however he sought to exercise his right of appeal to the people Appius sought to prevent the appeal but was convinced otherwise by the leading men This impasse and an increased level of sedition and secret meetings continued until the conclusion of the consuls' term of office Beginning in March BC the elected consuls were Aulus Verginius Tricostus Caeliomontanus and Titus Veturius Geminus Cicurinus Meanwhile the people held regular nightly meetings sometimes on the Esquiline Hill and other times upon the Aventine Hill The consuls got wind of these meetings and put the matter before the senate However the senate was so outraged that the consuls had not used the authority of their office to prevent these meetings that it was not at first possible to hold any vote The senators rebuked the consuls for failing to act and the consuls enquired as to the will of the senate In response the senate decreed that the army levies should be enrolled as quickly as possible in order to distract the people from their sedition The consuls therefore ascended the rostra and summoned the young men by name to enrol None responded Instead a crowd of the people gathered and told the consul that nobody would enrol until the public rights and liberties were restored The consuls were at a loss and fearing some great disturbance if the issue were pressed instead returned to the senate for further guidance Upon their return the younger senators were highly critical of the consuls for what they said was a lack of courage and called on them to resign But the consuls told the senate 1705 The Virginia Slave codes define as slaves all those servants brought into the colony who were not Christian in their original countries, as well as those American Indians sold by other Indians to colonists. 1712 April 6 – The New York Slave Revolt of 1712.[8] 1739 September 9 – In the Stono Rebellion, South Carolina slaves gather at the Stono River to plan an armed march for freedom.[9] 1753 Benjamin Banneker designed and built the first clock in the British American colonies. He also created a series of almanacs. He corresponded with Thomas Jefferson and wrote that "blacks were intellectually equal to whites". Banneker worked with Pierre L'Enfant to survey and design a street and urban plan for Washington, D.C.[10] 1760 Jupiter Hammon has a poem printed, becoming the first published African-American poet. 1765–1767 Non-Importation Agreements – The First Continental Congress creates a multi-colony agreement to forbid importation of anything from British merchants. This implicitly includes slaves, and stops the slave trade in Philadelphia. The second similar act explicitly stops the slave trade.[11] 1770 March 5 – Crispus Attucks is killed by British soldiers in the Boston Massacre, a precursor to the American Revolution. 1773 Phillis Wheatley has her book Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral published. 1774 The first black Baptist congregations are organized in the South: Silver Bluff Baptist Church in South Carolina, and First African Baptist Church near Petersburg, Virginia. 1775 April 14 – The Society for the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully held in Bondage holds four meetings. It was re-formed in 1784 as the Pennsylvania Abolition Society, and Benjamin Franklin would later be its president. 1776–1783 American Revolution Thousands of enslaved African Americans in the South escape to British lines, as they were promised freedom to fight with the British. In South Carolina, 25,000 enslaved African Americans, one-quarter of those held, escape to the British or otherwise leave their plantations.[12] After the war, many African Americans are evacuated with the British for England; more than 3,000 Black Loyalists are transported with other Loyalists to Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, where they are granted land. Still others go to Jamaica and the West Indies. An estimated 8-10,000 were evacuated from the colonies in these years as free people, about 50 percent of those slaves who defected to the British and about 80 percent of those who survived.[13] Many free blacks in the North fight with the colonists for the rebellion. 1777 July 8 – The Vermont Republic (a sovereign nation at the time) abolishes slavery, the first future state to do so. No slaves were held in Vermont. 1780 Pennsylvania becomes the first U.S. state to abolish slavery. 1781 In challenges by Elizabeth Freeman and Quock Walker, two independent county courts in Massachusetts found slavery illegal under state constitution and declared each to be free persons. 1783 Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court affirmed that Massachusetts state constitution had abolished slavery. It ruled that "the granting of rights and privileges [was] wholly incompatible and repugnant to" slavery, in an appeal case arising from the escape of Marijonas Mikutavicius – singer author of Trys Milijonai the unofficial sports anthem in Lithuania Vincas Niekus – lt Vincas Niekus composer Virgilijus Noreika – one of the most successful opera singers tenor Mykolas Kleopas Oginskis – one of the best composer of the late th century Kipras Petrauskas – lt Kipras Petrauskas popular early opera singer tenor Stasys Povilaitis – one of the popular singers during the Soviet period Violeta Riaubiškyte – pop singer TV show host Mindaugas Rojus opera singer tenor baritone Ceslovas Sasnauskas – composer Rasa Serra – lt Rasa Serra real name Rasa Veretenceviene singer Traditional folk A cappella jazz POP Audrone Simonaityte Gaižiuniene – lt Audrone Gaižiuniene Simonaityte one of the more popular female opera singers soprano Virgis Stakenas – lt Virgis Stakenas singer of country folk music Antanas Šabaniauskas – lt Antanas Šabaniauskas singer tenor Jurga Šeduikyte – art rock musician won the Best Female Act and the Best Album of in the Lithuanian Bravo Awards and the Best Baltic Act at the MTV Europe Music Awards Jonas Švedas – composer Michael Tchaban composer singer and songwriter Violeta Urmanaviciute Urmana opera singer soprano mezzosoprano appearing internationally Painters and graphic artists edit See also List of Lithuanian artists Robertas Antinis – sculptor Vytautas Ciplijauskas lt Vytautas Ciplijauskas painter Jonas Ceponis – lt Jonas Ceponis painter Mikalojus Konstantinas Ciurlionis – painter and composer Asteroid Ciurlionis is named for him Kostas Dereškevicius lt Kostas Dereškevicius painter Vladimiras Dubeneckis painter architect Stasys Eidrigevicius graphic artist Pranas Gailius lt Pranas Gailius painter Paulius Galaune Petronele Gerlikiene – self taught Lithuanian American artist Algirdas Griškevicius lt Algirdas Griškevicius Vincas Grybas – sculptor Leonardas Gutauskas lt Leonardas Gutauskas painter writer Vytautas Kairiukštis – lt Vytautas Kairiukštis painter art critic Vytautas Kasiulis – lt Vytautas Kasiulis painter graphic artist stage designer Petras Kalpokas painter Rimtas Kalpokas – lt Rimtas Kalpokas painter graphic artist Leonas Katinas – lt Leonas Katinas painter Povilas Kaupas – lt Povilas Kaupas Algimantas Kezys Lithuanian American photographer Vincas Kisarauskas – lt Vincas Kisarauskas painter graphic artist stage designer Saulute Stanislava Kisarauskiene – lt Saulute Stanislava Kisarauskiene graphic artist painter Stasys Krasauskas – lt Stasys Krasauskas graphic artist Stanislovas Kuzma – lt Stanislovas Kuzma sculptor Antanas Martinaitis – lt Antanas Martinaitis painter Jonas Rimša – lt Jonas Rimša painter Jan Rustem painter Antanas Samuolis – lt Antanas Samuolis painter Šarunas Sauka painter Boris Schatz – sculptor and founder of the Bezalel Academy Irena Sibley née Pauliukonis – Children s book author and illustrator Algis Skackauskas – painter Antanas Žmuidzinavicius – painter Franciszek Smuglewicz – painter Yehezkel Streichman Israeli painter Kazys Šimonis – painter Algimantas Švegžda – lt Algimantas Švegžda painter Otis Tamašauskas Lithographer Print Maker Graphic Artist Adolfas Valeška – painter and graphic artist Adomas Varnas – painter Kazys Varnelis – artist Vladas Vildžiunas lt Vladas Vildžiunas sculptor Mikalojus Povilas Vilutis lt Mikalojus Povilas Vilutis graphic artist Viktoras Vizgirda – painter William Zorach – Modern artist who died in Bath Maine Antanas Žmuidzinavicius – painter Kazimieras Leonardas Žoromskis – painter Politics edit President Valdas Adamkus right chatting with Vice President Dick Cheney left See also List of Lithuanian rulers Mindaugas – the first and only King of Lithuania – Gediminas – the ruler of Lithuania – Algirdas – the ruler together with Kestutis of Lithuania – Kestutis – the ruler together with Algirdas of Lithuania – Vytautas – the ruler of Lithuania – together with Jogaila Jogaila – the ruler of Lithuania – from to together with Vytautas the king of Poland – Jonušas Radvila – the field hetman of Grand Duchy of Lithuania – Dalia Grybauskaite – current President of Lithuania since Valdas Adamkus – President of Lithuania till Jonas Basanavicius – "father" of the Act of Independence of Algirdas Brazauskas – the former First secretary of Central Committee of Communist Party of Lithuanian SSR the former president of Lithuania after and former Prime Minister of Lithuania Joe Fine – mayor of Marquette Michigan – Kazys Grinius – politician third President of Lithuania Mykolas Krupavicius – priest behind the land reform in interwar Lithuania Vytautas Landsbergis – politician professor leader of Sajudis the independence movement former speaker of Seimas member of European Parliament Stasys Lozoraitis – diplomat and leader of Lithuanian government in exile – Stasys Lozoraitis junior – politician diplomat succeeded his father as leader of Lithuanian government in exile – Antanas Merkys – the last Prime Minister of interwar Lithuania Rolandas Paksas – former President removed from the office after impeachment Justas Paleckis – journalist and politician puppet Prime Minister after Soviet occupation Kazimiera Prunskiene – the first female Prime Minister Mykolas Sleževicius – three times Prime Minister organized

that the disturbances were more serious and more advanced than the senate realised and invited the senators to attend the forum to observe the difficulties faced by the consuls in enrolling the levies The consuls accompanied by some senators then returned to the rostra and called for the enrollment of one man of the people who the consuls knew was most unwilling to agree The man surrounded by his supporters failed to respond The consuls sent a lictor to seize the man but the man's supporters threw the lictor back The senators shocked at this went to help the lictor but were also pushed away and a greater disturbance was only averted by the timely intervention of the consuls The senate was then recalled Those senators who had been involved in the incident called for a criminal inquiry and there was a great deal of tumult and shouting particularly amongst the most extreme elements of the senate The consuls upbraided them for being as unruly as the people in the forum whereupon a vote was held Three propositions were considered The most extreme was put by the consul of the previous year Appius Claudius who said that the people were given over to licentiousness and had no fear of the consequences of their behaviour because of their right of appeal to the popular assembly He called for the appointment of a dictator from whom no appeal could lie On the other hand Titus Lartius advocated that measures should be put in place for the relief of the debt issues which had given rise to the people's complaints As a middle ground another senator Publius Virginius it is unclear whether he was related to the consul proposed that the relief suggested by Lartius should only be extended to those persons who served in the army in the recent wars against the Aurunci and the Sabines The suggestion of Appius was supported by a majority and although Appius himself was almost chosen as dictator instead the senate chose a man of more moderate temper Manius Valerius Maximus Valerius was the brother of Publius Valerius Publicola who held the agnomen 'Publicola' 'friend of the people' because after the overthrow of the monarchy he had as consul instituted the right of appeal to the people's assembly As a result the people did not fear harsh treatment from the dictator Valerius Second interlude edit Shortly after his appointment with the threat of war looming from a number of foreign enemies the Aequi Sabines and the Volsci Valerius issued an edict in relation to debt which was in effect similar to that which had been issued by Servilius in the previous year and the people were convinced to enlist in the army Ten legions were raised a greater number than had ever been raised previously Three were assigned to each of the consuls and the dictator took four legions to deal with the greatest threat which was posed by the Sabines Spurius Cassius Viscellinus or Vecellinus d BC was one of the most distinguished men of the early Roman Republic He was three times consul and celebrated two triumphs He was the first magister equitum and the author of the first agrarian law The year following his last consulship he was accused of aiming at regal power and was put to death by the patricians Contents hide Background Magistracies Trial and execution Chronological uncertainty See also Ancient Rome was an Italic civilization that began on the Italian Peninsula as early as the th century BC Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome it expanded to become one of the largest empires in the ancient world with an estimated to million inhabitants roughly of the world's population and covering million square kilometers million sq mi during its height between the first and second centuries AD In its approximately centuries of existence Roman civilization shifted from a monarchy to a classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic empire Through conquest and assimilation it came to dominate Southern and Western Europe Asia Minor North Africa and parts of Northern and Eastern Europe Rome was preponderant throughout the Mediterranean region and was one of the most powerful entities of the ancient world It is often grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco Roman world Ancient Roman society has contributed to modern government law politics engineering art literature architecture technology warfare religion language and society A civilization highly developed for its time Rome professionalized and expanded its military and created a system of government called res publica the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France It achieved impressive technological and architectural feats such as the construction of an extensive system of aqueducts and roads as well as large monuments palaces and public facilities By the end of the Republic Rome had conquered the lands around the Mediterranean and beyond its domain extended from the Atlantic to Arabia and from the mouth of the Rhine to North Africa The Roman Empire emerged under the leadership of Augustus Caesar years of Roman Persian Wars started in BC with their first war against Parthia It would become the longest conflict in human history and have major lasting effects and consequences for both empires Under Trajan the Empire reached its territorial peak Republican mores and traditions started to decline during the imperial period with civil wars becoming a common ritual for a new emperor's rise Splinter states such as the Palmyrene Empire would temporarily divide the Empire in the crisis of the rd century Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples the western part of the empire broke up into independent kingdoms in the th century This splintering is a landmark historians use to divide the ancient period of universal history from the pre medieval "Dark Ages" of Europe Contents hide Founding myth Kingdom Republic Punic Wars Late Republic Marius and Sulla Caesar and the First Triumvirate Octavian and the Second Triumvirate Empire – the Principate Julio Claudian dynasty Augustus From Tiberius to Nero Flavian dynasty Vespasian Titus and Domitian Nerva–Antonine dynasty Trajan From Hadrian to Commodus Severan dynasty Septimius Severus From Caracalla to Alexander Severus Crisis of the Third Century Empire – the Dominate Diocletian Constantine and Christianity Fall of the Western Roman Empire Society Class structure Family Education Government Law Economy Military Culture Language Religion Art music and literature Cuisine Games and recreation Technology Legacy Historiography In Roman times In modern times See also Notes References Further reading External links Founding myth Main article Founding of Rome According to legend Rome was founded in BC by Romulus and Remus who were raised by a she wolf According to the founding myth of Rome the city was founded on April BC by twin brothers Romulus and Remus who descended from the Trojan prince Aeneas and who were grandsons of the Latin King Numitor of Alba Longa King Numitor was deposed from his throne by his brother Amulius while Numitor's daughter Rhea Silvia gave birth to the twins Because Rhea Silvia was raped and impregnated by Mars the Roman god of war the twins were considered half divine The new king feared Romulus and Remus would take back the throne so he ordered them to be drowned A she wolf or a shepherd's wife in some accounts saved and raised them and when they were old enough they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor The twins then founded their own city but Romulus killed Remus in a quarrel over the location of the Roman Kingdom though some sources state the quarrel was about who was going to rule or give his name to the city Romulus became the source of the city's name In order to attract people to the city Rome became a sanctuary for the indigent exiled and unwanted This caused a problem for Rome which had a large workforce but was bereft of women Romulus traveled to the neighboring towns and tribes and attempted to secure marriage rights but as Rome was so full of undesirables they all refused Legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens leading to the integration of the Latins and the Sabines Another legend recorded by Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus says that Prince Aeneas led a group of Trojans on a sea voyage to found a new Troy since the original was destroyed in the outcome of the Trojan War After a long time in rough seas they landed at the banks of the Tiber River Not long after they landed the men wanted to take to the sea again but the women who were traveling with them did not want to leave One woman named Roma suggested that the women burn the ships out at sea to prevent them from leaving At first the men were angry with Roma but they soon realized that they were in the ideal place to settle They named the settlement after the woman who torched their ships The Roman poet Virgil recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the Aeneid In the Aeneid the Trojan prince Aeneas is destined by the gods in his enterprise of founding a new Troy In the epic the women also refused to go back to the sea but they were not left on the Tiber After reaching Italy Aeneas who wanted to marry Lavinia was forced to wage war with her former suitor Turnus According to the poem the Alban kings were descended from Aeneas and thus Romulus the founder of Rome was his descendant Kingdom Main article Roman Kingdom The city of Rome grew from settlements around a ford on the river Tiber a crossroads of traffic and trade According to archaeological evidence the village of Rome was probably founded some time in the th century BC though it may go back as far as the th century BC by members of the Latin tribe of Italy on the top of the Palatine Hill The Etruscans who had previously settled to the north in Etruria seem to have established political control in the region by the late th century BC forming the aristocratic and monarchical elite The Etruscans apparently lost power in the area by the late th century BC and at this point the original Latin and Sabine tribes reinvented their government by creating a republic with much greater restraints on the ability of rulers to exercise power Roman tradition and archaeological evidence point to a complex within the Forum Romanum as the seat of power for the king and the beginnings of the religious center there as well Numa Pompilius was the second king of Rome succeeding Romulus He began Rome's building projects with his royal palace the Regia and the complex of the Vestal virgins Republic Main article Roman Republic This bust from the Capitoline Museums is traditionally identified as a portrait of Lucius Junius Brutus According to tradition and later writers such as Livy the Roman Republic was established around BC when the last of the seven kings of Rome Tarquin the Proud was deposed by Lucius Junius Brutus and a system based on annually elected magistrates and various representative assemblies was established A constitution set a series of checks and balances and a separation of powers The most important magistrates were the two consuls who together exercised executive authority as imperium or military command The consuls had to work with the senate which was initially an advisory council of the ranking nobility or patricians but grew in size and power Other magistracies in the Republic include tribunes quaestors aediles praetors and censors The magistracies were originally restricted to patricians but were later opened to common people or plebeians Republican voting assemblies included the comitia centuriata centuriate assembly which voted on matters of war and peace and elected men to the most important offices and the comitia tributa tribal assembly which elected less important offices Italy in BC In the th century BC Rome had come under attack by the Gauls now extending their power in the Italian peninsula beyond the Po Valley and through Etruria On July BC a Gallic army under the leadership of a tribal chieftain named Brennus met the Romans on the banks of the small Allia River just ten miles north of Rome Brennus defeated the Romans and the Gauls marched directly to Rome Most Romans had fled the city but some barricaded themselves upon the Capitoline Hill for a last stand The Gauls looted and burned the city then laid siege to the Capitoline Hill The siege lasted seven months the Gauls then agreed to give the Romans peace in exchange for pounds kg of gold According to later legend the Roman supervising the weighing noticed that the Gauls were using false scales The Romans then took up arms and defeated the Gauls their victorious general Camillus remarked "With iron not with gold Rome buys her freedom " The Romans gradually subdued the other peoples on the Italian peninsula including the Etruscans The last threat to Roman hegemony in Italy came when Tarentum a major Greek colony enlisted the aid of Pyrrhus of Epirus in BC but this effort failed as well The Romans secured their conquests by founding Roman colonies in strategic areas thereby establishing stable control over the region of Italy Punic Wars Main article Punic Wars This section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed September In the rd century BC Rome had to face a new and formidable opponent Carthage Carthage was a rich flourishing Phoenician city state that intended to dominate the Mediterranean area The two cities were allies in the times of Pyrrhus who was a menace to both but with Rome's hegemony in mainland Italy and the Carthaginian thalassocracy these cities became the two major powers in the Western Mediterranean – a signal of the imminent war The First Punic War began in BC when the city of Messana asked for Carthage's help in dealing with Hiero II of Syracuse After the Carthaginian intercession Messana asked Rome to expel the Carthaginians Rome entered this war because Syracuse and Messana were too close to the newly conquered Greek cities of Southern Italy and Carthage was now able to make an offensive through Roman territory along with this Rome could extend its domain over Sicily Although the Romans had experience in land battles to defeat this new enemy naval battles were necessary Carthage was a maritime power and the Roman lack of ships and naval experience would make the path to the victory a long and difficult one for the Roman Republic Despite this after more than years of war Rome defeated Carthage and a peace treaty was signed Among the reasons for the Second Punic War was the subsequent war reparations Carthage acquiesced to at the end of the First Punic War The Second Punic War is famous for its brilliant generals on the Punic side Hannibal and Hasdrubal on the Roman Marcus Claudius Marcellus Quintus Fabius Maximus and Publius Cornelius Scipio Rome fought this war simultaneously with the First Macedonian War The outbreak of the war was the audacious invasion of Italy led by Hannibal son of Hamilcar Barca the Carthaginian general who was in charge of Sicily in the First Punic War Hannibal rapidly marched through Hispania and the Alps causing panic among Rome's Italian allies The best way found to defeat Hannibal's purpose of causing the Italians to abandon Rome was to delay the Carthaginians with a guerrilla war of attrition a strategy propounded by Quintus Fabius Maximus who would be nicknamed Cunctator "delayer" in Latin and whose strategy would be forever after known as Fabian Due to this Hannibal's goal was unachieved he couldn't bring Italian cities to revolt against Rome and replenish his diminishing army and he thus lacked the machines and manpower to besiege Rome Still Hannibal's invasion lasted over years ravaging Italy Finally when the Romans perceived that Hannibal's supplies were running out they sent Scipio who had defeated Hannibal's brother Hasdrubal to invade the unprotected Carthaginian hinterland and force Hannibal to return to defend Carthage itself The result was the ending of the Second Punic War by the famously decisive Battle of Zama in October BC which gave to Scipio his agnomen Africanus At great cost Rome had made significant gains the conquest of Hispania by Scipio and of Syracuse the last Greek realm in Sicily by Marcellus More than a half century after these events Carthage was humiliated and Rome was no more concerned about the African menace The Republic's focus now was only to the Hellenistic kingdoms of Greece and revolts in Hispania However Carthage after having paid the war indemnity felt that its commitments and submission to Rome had ceased a vision not shared by the Roman Senate In BC Numidia invaded Carthage and after asking for Roman help ambassadors were sent to Carthage among them was Marcus Porcius Cato who after seeing that Carthage could make a comeback and regain its importance ended all his speeches no matter what the subject was by saying "Ceterum censeo Carthaginem esse delendam" "Furthermore I think that Carthage must be destroyed" As Carthage fought with Numidia without Roman consent Rome declared war against Carthage in BC Carthage resisted well at the first strike with the participation of all the inhabitants of the city However Carthage could not withstand the attack of Scipio Aemilianus who entirely destroyed the city and its walls enslaved and sold all the citizens and gained control of that region which became the province of Africa Thus ended the Punic War period All these wars resulted in Rome's first overseas conquests of Sicily Hispania and Africa and the rise of Rome as a significant imperial power Late Republic Main article Roman Republic After defeating the Macedonian and Seleucid Empires in the nd century BC the Romans became the dominant people of the Mediterranean Sea The conquest of the Hellenistic kingdoms provoked a fusion between Roman and Greek cultures and the Roman elite once rural became a luxurious and cosmopolitan one By this time Rome was a consolidated empire – in the military view – and had no major enemies Gaius Marius a Roman general and politician who dramatically reformed the Roman military Foreign dominance led to internal strife Senators became rich at the provinces' expense but soldiers who were mostly small scale farmers were away from home longer and could not maintain their land and the increased reliance on foreign slaves and the growth of latifundia reduced the availability of paid work Income from war booty mercantilism in the new provinces and tax farming created new economic opportunities for the wealthy forming a new class of merchants the equestrians The lex Claudia forbade members of the Senate from engaging in commerce so while the equestrians could theoretically join the Senate they were severely restricted in political power The Senate squabbled perpetually repeatedly blocking important land reforms and refusing to give the equestrian class a larger say in the government Violent gangs of the urban unemployed controlled by rival Senators intimidated the electorate through violence The situation came to a head in the late nd century BC under the Gracchi brothers a pair of tribunes who attempted to pass land reform legislation that would redistribute the major patrician landholdings among the plebeians Both brothers were killed and the Senate passed reforms reversing the Gracchi brother's actions This led to the growing divide of the plebeian groups populares and equestrian classes optimates Marius and Sulla Gaius Marius a novus homo started his political career with the help of the powerful Metelli and soon become a leader of the Republic holding the first of his seven consulships an unprecedented number in BC by arguing that his former patron Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus was not able to defeat and capture the Numidian king Jugurtha Marius then started his military reform in his recruitment to fight Jugurtha he levied very poor men an innovation and many landless men entered the army – this was the seed of securing loyalty of the army to the General in command At this time Marius began his quarrel with Lucius Cornelius Sulla Marius who wanted to capture Jugurtha asked Bocchus son in law of Jugurtha to hand him over to the Romans As Marius failed Sulla – a legate of Marius at that time – went himself to Bocchus in a dangerous enterprise and convinced Bocchus to hand Jugurtha over to him This was very provocative to Marius since many of his enemies were encouraging Sulla to oppose Marius Despite this Marius was elected for five consecutive consulships from to BC because Rome needed a military leader to defeat the Cimbri and the Teutones who were threatening Rome Lucius Cornelius Sulla After Marius's retirement Rome had a brief peace in which the Italian socii "allies" in Latin requested Roman citizenship and voting rights The reformist Marcus Livius Drusus supported their legal process but he was assassinated and the socii revolted against the Romans in the Social War At one point both consuls were killed Marius was appointed to command the army together with Lucius Julius Caesar and Sulla By the ending of the Social War Marius and Sulla were the premier military men in Rome and their partisans were in conflict both sides jostling for power In BC Sulla was elected for his first consulship and his first assignment was to defeat Mithridates of Pontus whose intentions were to conquer the Eastern part of the Roman territories However Marius's partisans managed his installation to the military command defying Sulla and the Senate and this caused Sulla's wrath To consolidate his own power Sulla conducted a surprising and illegal action he marched to Rome with his legions killing all those who showed support to Marius's cause and impaling their heads in the Roman Forum In the following year BC Marius who had fled at Sulla's march came back to Rome while Sulla was campaigning in Greece He seized power along with the consul Lucius Cornelius Cinna and killed the other consul Gnaeus Octavius achieving to his seventh consulship In an attempt to raise Sulla's anger Marius and Cinna revenged their partisans conducting a massacre Marius died in BC due to his age and poor health just a few months after seizing power Cinna exercised absolute power until his death in BC Sulla after returning from his Eastern campaigns had a free path to reestablish his own power In BC he made his second march in Rome and started a more sanguinary time of terror thousands of nobles knights and senators were executed Sulla also held two dictatorships and one more consulship which established the crisis and decline of Roman Republic Caesar and the First Triumvirate Bust of Caesar from the Naples National Archaeological Museum This section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed September In the mid st century BC Roman politics were restless Political divisions in Rome became identified with two groupings populares who hoped for the support of the people and optimates the "best" who wanted to maintain exclusive aristocratic control Sulla overthrew all populist leaders and his constitutional reforms removed powers such as those of the tribune of the plebs that had supported populist approaches Meanwhile social and economic stresses continued to build Rome had become a metropolis with a super rich aristocracy debt ridden aspirants and a large proletariat often of impoverished farmers The latter groups supported the Catilinarian conspiracy – a resounding failure since the consul Marcus Tullius Cicero quickly arrested and executed the main leaders of the conspiracy Onto this turbulent scene emerged Gaius Julius Caesar from an aristocratic family of limited wealth His aunt Julia was Marius' wife and Caesar identified with the populares To achieve power Caesar reconciled the two most powerful men in Rome Marcus Licinius Crassus who had financed much of his earlier career and Crassus' rival Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus anglicized as Pompey to whom he married his daughter He formed them into a new informal alliance including himself the First Triumvirate "three men" This satisfied the interests of all three Crassus the richest man in Rome became richer and ultimately achieved high military command Pompey exerted more influence in the Senate and Caesar obtained the consulship and military command in Gaul So long as they agreed the three were in effect the rulers of Rome In BC Caesar's daughter Pompey's wife died in childbirth unraveling one link in the alliance In BC Crassus invaded Parthia and was killed in the Battle of Carrhae The Triumvirate disintegrated at Crassus' death Crassus had acted as mediator between Caesar and Pompey and without him the two generals manoeuvred against each other for power Caesar conquered Gaul obtaining immense wealth respect in Rome and the loyalty of battle hardened legions He also became a clear menace to Pompey and was loathed by many optimates Confident that Caesar could be stopped by legal means Pompey's party tried to strip Caesar of his legions a prelude to Caesar's trial impoverishment and exile To avoid this fate Caesar crossed the Rubicon River and invaded Rome in BC Pompey and his party fled from Italy pursued by Caesar The Battle of Pharsalus was a brilliant victory for Caesar and in this and other campaigns he destroyed all of the optimates' leaders Metellus Scipio Cato the Younger and Pompey's son Gnaeus Pompeius Pompey was murdered in Egypt in BC Caesar was now pre eminent over Rome attracting the bitter enmity of many aristocrats He was granted many offices and honours In just five years he held four consulships two ordinary dictatorships and two special dictatorships one for ten years and another for perpetuity He was murdered in BC in the Ides of March by the Liberatores Octavian and the Second Triumvirate The Battle of Actium by Laureys a Castro painted National Maritime Museum London Caesar's assassination caused political and social turmoil in Rome without the dictator's leadership the city was ruled by his friend and colleague Mark Antony Soon afterward Octavius whom Caesar adopted through his will arrived in Rome Octavian historians regard Octavius as Octavian due to the Roman naming conventions tried to align himself with the Caesarian faction In BC along with Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus Caesar's best friend he legally established the Second Triumvirate This alliance would last for five years Upon its formation – senators were executed and their property was confiscated due to their supposed support for the Liberatores In BC the Senate deified Caesar as Divus Iulius Octavian thus became Divi filius the son of the deified In the same year Octavian and Antony defeated both Caesar's assassins and the leaders of the Liberatores Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus in the Battle of Philippi The Second Triumvirate was marked by the proscriptions of many senators and equites after a revolt led by Antony's brother Lucius Antonius more than senators and equites involved were executed on the anniversary of the Ides of March although Lucius was spared The Triumvirate proscribed several important men including Cicero whom Antony hated Quintus Tullius Cicero the younger brother of the orator and Lucius Julius Caesar cousin and friend of the acclaimed general for his support of Cicero However Lucius was pardoned perhaps because his sister Julia had intervened for him The Triumvirate divided the Empire among the triumvirs Lepidus was left in charge of Africa Antony the eastern provinces and Octavian remained in Italia and controlled Hispania and Gaul The Second Triumvirate expired in BC but was renewed for five more years However the relationship between Octavian and Antony had deteriorated and Lepidus was forced to retire in BC after betraying Octavian in Sicily By the end of the Triumvirate Antony was living in Egypt an independent and rich kingdom ruled by Antony's lover Cleopatra VII Antony's affair with Cleopatra was seen as an act of treason since she was queen of another country Additionally Antony adopted lifestyle considered too extravagant and Hellenistic for a Roman statesman Following Antony's Donations of Alexandria which gave to Cleopatra the title of "Queen of Kings" and to Antony's and Cleopatra's children the regal titles to the newly conquered Eastern territories the war between Octavian and Antony broke out Octavian annihilated Egyptian forces in the Battle of Actium in BC Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide Now Egypt was conquered by the Roman Empire and for the Romans a new era had begun Empire – the Principate Main article Roman Empire In BC Octavian was the sole Roman leader His leadership brought the zenith of the Roman civilization that lasted for two centuries In that year he took the name Augustus That event is usually taken by historians as the beginning of Roman Empire – although Rome was an "imperial" state since BC when Carthage was razed by Scipio Aemilianus and Greece was conquered by Lucius Mummius Officially the government was republican but Augustus assumed absolute powers Julio Claudian dynasty The Julio Claudian dynasty was established by Augustus The emperors of this dynasty were Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius and Nero The dynasty is so called due to the gens Julia family of Augustus and the gens Claudia family of Tiberius The Julio Claudians started the destruction of republican values but on the other hand they boosted Rome's status as the central power in the world While Caligula and Nero are usually remembered as dysfunctional emperors in popular culture Augustus and Claudius are remembered as emperors who were successful in politics and the military This dynasty instituted imperial tradition in Rome and frustrated any attempt to reestablish Republic Augustus Augustus gathered almost all the republican powers under his official title princeps he had powers of consul princeps senatus aedile censor and tribune – including tribunician sacrosanctity This was the base of an emperor's power Augustus also styled himself as Imperator Gaius Julius Caesar divi filius "Commander Gaius Julius Caesar son of the deified one" With this title he not only boasted his familial link to deified Julius Caesar but the use of Imperator signified a permanent link to the Roman tradition of victory He also diminished the Senatorial class influence in politics by boosting the equestrian class The senators lost their right to rule certain provinces like Egypt since the governor of that province was directly nominated by the emperor The creation of the Praetorian Guard and his reforms in military setting the number of legions in ensured his total control over the army Statue of Augustus the first Roman emperor Compared with Second Triumvirate's epoch Augustus' reign as princeps was very peaceful This peace and richness that was granted by the agrarian province of Egypt led people and nobles of Rome to support Augustus and increased his strength in political affairs In military activity Augustus was absent at battles His generals were responsible for the field command gaining much respect from the populace and the legions such as Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa Nero Claudius Drusus and Germanicus Augustus intended to extend the Roman Empire to the whole known world and in his reign Rome had conquered Cantabria Aquitania Raetia Dalmatia Illyricum and Pannonia Under Augustus's reign Roman literature grew steadily in the Golden Age of Latin Literature Poets like Virgil Horace Ovid and Rufus developed a rich literature and were close friends of Augustus Along with Maecenas he stimulated patriotic poems as Virgil's epic Aeneid and also historiographical works like those of Livy The works of this literary age lasted through Roman times and are classics Augustus also continued the shifts on the calendar promoted by Caesar and the month of August is named after him Augustus brought a peaceful and thriving era to Rome that is known as Pax Augusta or Pax Romana Augustus died in AD but the empire's glory continued after his era From Tiberius to Nero Extent of the Roman Empire under Augustus The yellow legend represents the extent of the Republic in BC the shades of green represent gradually conquered territories under the reign of Augustus and pink areas on the map represent client states however areas under Roman control shown here were subject to change even during Augustus' reign especially in Germania The Julio Claudians continued to rule Rome after Augustus' death and they remained in power until the death of Nero in AD Augustus' favorites for succeeding him were already dead in his senescence his nephew Marcellus died in BC his friend and military commander Agrippa in BC and his grandson Gaius Caesar in AD Influenced by his wife Livia Drusilla Augustus appointed Tiberius her son from another marriage as his heir The Senate agreed with the succession and granted to Tiberius the same titles and honors once granted to Augustus the title of princeps and Pater patriae and the Civic Crown However Tiberius was not an enthusiast of political affairs after agreement with the Senate he retired to Capri in AD and left control of the city of Rome in the hands of the praetorian prefect Sejanus until AD and Macro from to AD Tiberius was regarded as an evil and melancholic man who may have ordered the murder of his relatives the popular general Germanicus in AD and his own son Drusus Julius Caesar in AD Tiberius died or was killed in AD The male line of the Julio Claudians was limited to Tiberius' nephew Claudius his grandson Tiberius Gemellus and his grand nephew Caligula As Gemellus was still a child Caligula was chosen to rule the Empire Being a popular leader in the first half of his reign Caligula became a crude and insane tyrant in his years controlling government Suetonius states that he committed incest with his sisters killed some men just for amusement and nominated a horse for a consulship The Praetorian Guard murdered Caligula four years after the death of Tiberius and with belated support from the senators proclaimed his uncle Claudius as the new emperor Claudius was not as authoritarian as Tiberius and Caligula Claudius conquered Lycia and Thrace his most important deed was the beginning of the conquest of Britain Claudius was poisoned by his wife Agrippina the Younger in AD His heir was Nero son of Agrippina and her former husband since Claudius' son Britannicus had not reached manhood upon his father's death Nero is widely known as the first persecutor of Christians and for the Great Fire of Rome rumoured to have been started by the emperor himself Nero faced many revolts during his reign like the Pisonian conspiracy and the First Jewish Roman War Although Nero defeated these rebels he could not overthrow the revolt led by Servius Sulpicius Galba The Senate soon declared Nero a public enemy and he committed suicide Flavian dynasty The Flavians were the second dynasty to rule Rome In AD year of Nero's death there was no chance of return to the old and traditional Roman Republic thus a new emperor had to rise After the turmoil in the Year of the Four Emperors Titus Flavius Vespasianus anglicized as Vespasian took control of the Empire and established a new dynasty Under the Flavians Rome continued its expansion and the state remained secure Vespasian Bust of Vespasian founder of the Flavian dynasty Vespasian was a general under Claudius and Nero He fought as a commander in the First Jewish Roman War along with his son Titus Following the turmoil of the Year of the Four Emperors in AD four emperors were enthroned Galba Otho Vitellius and lastly Vespasian who crushed Vitellius' forces and became emperor He reconstructed many buildings which were uncompleted like a statue of Apollo and the temple of Divus Claudius "the deified Claudius" both initiated by Nero Buildings once destroyed by the Great Fire of Rome were rebuilt and he revitalized the Capitol Vespasian also started the construction of the Flavian Amphitheater more commonly known as the Colosseum The historians Josephus and Pliny the Elder wrote their works during Vespasian's reign Vespasian was Josephus' sponsor and Pliny dedicated his Naturalis Historia to Titus son of Vespasian Vespasian sent legions to defend the eastern frontier in Cappadocia extended the occupation in Britain and renewed the tax system He died in AD Titus and Domitian Titus had a short lived rule he was emperor from – AD He finished the Flavian Amphitheater which was constructed with war spoils from the First Jewish Roman War and promoted games that lasted for a hundred days These games were for celebrating the victory over the Jews and included gladiatorial combats chariot races and a sensational mock naval battle that flooded the grounds of the Colosseum Titus constructed a line of roads and fortifications on the borders of modern day Germany and his general Gnaeus Julius Agricola conquered much of Britain leading the Roman world so far as Scotland On the other hand his failed war against Dacia was a humiliating defeat Titus died of fever in AD being succeeded by his brother Domitian As emperor Domitian assumed totalitarian characteristics and thought he could be a new Augustus and tried to make a personal cult of himself Domitian ruled for fifteen years and his reign was marked by his attempts to compare himself to the gods He constructed at least two temples in honour of Jupiter the supreme deity in Roman religion He also liked to be called "Dominus et Deus" "Master and God" The nobles disliked his rule and he was murdered by a conspiracy in AD Nerva–Antonine dynasty The Roman Empire at its greatest extent under Trajan in AD During the rule of the Nerva–Antonine Rome reached its territorial and economical apogee This time was a peaceful one for Rome the criteria for choosing an emperor were the qualities of the candidate and no longer ties of kinship additionally there were no civil wars or military defeats in that time Following Domitian's murder the Senate rapidly appointed Nerva to hold imperial dignity – this was the first time that senators chose the emperor since Octavian was honored with the titles of princeps and Augustus Nerva had a noble ancestry and he served as an advisor to Nero and the Flavians His rule restored many of the liberties once taken by Domitian and started the last golden era of Rome Trajan Eugène Delacroix The Justice of Trajan fragment Nerva died in AD and the successor was his heir the general Trajan Trajan was born in a non patrician family from Hispania and his preeminence emerged in the army under Domitian He is the second of the Five Good Emperors the first being Nerva Trajan was greeted by the people of Rome with enthusiasm which he justified by governing well and without the bloodiness that had marked Domitian's reign He freed many people who had been unjustly imprisoned by Domitian and returned private property that Domitian had confiscated a process begun by Nerva before his death Trajan conquered Dacia and defeated the king Decebalus who had defeated Domitian's forces In the First Dacian War – the defeated Dacia became a client kingdom in the Second Dacian War – Trajan completely devastated the enemy's resistance and annexed Dacia to the Empire Trajan also annexed the client state of Nabatea to form the province of Arabia Petraea which included the lands of southern Syria and northwestern Arabia He erected many buildings that still survive to this day such as Trajan's Forum Trajan's Market and Trajan's Column His main architect was Apollodorus of Damascus Apollodorus made the project of the Forum and of the Column and also reformed the Pantheon Trajan's triumphal arches in Ancona and Beneventum are other constructions projected by him In Dacian War Apollodorus made a great bridge over the Danube for Trajan Trajan's final war was against Parthia When Parthia appointed a king for Armenia who was unacceptable Parthia and Rome shared dominance over Armenia to Rome he declared war He probably wanted to be the first Roman leader to conquer Parthia and repeat the glory of Alexander the Great conqueror of Asia whom Trajan next followed in the clash of Greek Romans and the Persian cultures In he marched to Armenia and deposed the local king In Trajan turned south into the core of Parthian hegemony taking the Northern Mesopotamian cities of Nisibis and Batnae and organizing a province of Mesopotamia in the beginning of when coins were issued announcing that Armenia and Mesopotamia had been put under the authority of the Roman people In that same year he captured Seleucia and the Parthian capital Ctesiphon After defeating a Parthian revolt and a Jewish revolt he withdrew due to health issues In his illness grew and he died of edema He nominated Hadrian as his heir Under Trajan's leadership the Roman Empire reached the peak of its territorial expansion Rome's dominion now spanned square miles square kilometres From Hadrian to Commodus The prosperity brought by Nerva and Trajan continued in the reigns of subsequent emperors from Hadrian to Marcus Aurelius Hadrian withdrew all the troops stationed in Parthia and Mesopotamia abandoning Trajan's conquests Hadrian's government was very peaceful since he avoided wars he constructed fortifications and walls like the famous Hadrian's Wall between Roman Britain and the barbarians of modern day Scotland A famous philhellenist he promoted culture specially the Greek culture He also forbade torture and humanized the laws Hadrian built many aqueducts baths libraries and theaters additionally he traveled nearly every single province in the Empire to check the military and infrastructural conditions After Hadrian's death at his successor Antoninus Pius built temples theaters and mausoleums promoted the arts and sciences and bestowed honours and financial rewards upon the teachers of rhetoric and philosophy Antoninus made few initial changes when he became emperor leaving intact as far as possible the arrangements instituted by Hadrian Antoninus expanded the Roman Britain by invading southern Scotland and building the Antonine Wall He also continued Hadrian's policy of humanizing the laws He died in AD Marcus Aurelius known as the Philosopher was the last of the Five Good Emperors He was a stoic philosopher and wrote a book called Meditations He defeated barbarian tribes in the Marcomannic Wars as well as the Parthian Empire His co emperor Lucius Verus died in AD probably victim of the Antonine Plague a pandemic that swept nearly five million people through the Empire in – AD From Nerva to Marcus Aurelius the empire achieved an unprecedented happy and glorious status The powerful influence of laws and manners had gradually cemented the union of the provinces All the citizens enjoyed and abused the advantages of wealth The image of a free constitution was preserved with decent reverence The Roman senate appeared to possess the sovereign authority and devolved on the emperors all the executive powers of government The Five Good Emperors' rule is considered the golden era of the Empire Commodus son of Marcus Aurelius became emperor after his father's death He is not counted as one of the Five Good Emperors Firstly this was due to his direct kinship with the latter emperor in addition he was passive in comparison with his predecessors who were frequently leading their armies in person Commodus usually took part on gladiatorial combats which often symbolized brutality and roughness He killed many citizens and his reign was the beginning of Roman decadence as stated Cassius Dio " Rome has transformed from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust " Severan dynasty Commodus was killed by a conspiracy involving Quintus Aemilius Laetus and his wife Marcia in late AD The following year is known as the Year of the Five Emperors Pertinax Didius Julianus Pescennius Niger Clodius Albinus and Septimius Severus fought for the imperial dignity After many battles against the other generals Severus established himself as the new emperor He and his successors governed with the legions' support – and they paid money for this support The changes on coinage and military expenditures were the root of the financial crisis that marked the Crisis of the Third Century Septimius Severus Septimius Severus at Glyptothek Munich Severus was enthroned after invading Rome and having Didius Julianus killed His two other rivals Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus were both were hailed as Imperator Severus quickly subdued Niger in Byzantium and promised to Albinus the title of Caesar which meant he would be a co emperor However Severus betrayed Albinus by blaming him for a plot against his life Severus marched to Gaul and defeated Albinus For these acts Machiavelli said that Severus was "a ferocious lion and a clever fox" Severus attempted to revive totalitarianism and in an address to people and the Senate he praised the severity and cruelty of Marius and Sulla which worried the senators When Parthia invaded Roman territory Severus waged war against that country He seized the cities of Nisibis Babylon and Seleucia Reaching Ctesiphon the Parthian capital he ordered plundering and his army slew and captured many people Albeit this military success he failed in invading Hatra a rich Arabian city Severus killed his legate for the latter was gaining respect from the legions and his soldiers were hit by famine After this disastrous campaign he withdrew Severus also intended to vanquish the whole of Britain In order to achieve this he waged war against the Caledonians After many casualties in the army due to the terrain and the barbarians' ambushes Severus went himself to the field However he became ill and died in AD From Caracalla to Alexander Severus Upon the death of Severus his sons Caracalla and Geta were made emperors Caracalla got rid of his brother in that same year Like his father Caracalla was a warlike man He continued Severus' policy and gained respect from the legions Caracalla was a cruel man and ordered several slayings during his reign He ordered the death of people of his own circle like his tutor Cilo and a friend of his father Papinian Knowing that the citizens of Alexandria disliked him and were speaking ill of his character he slew almost the entire population of the city Arriving there he served a banquet for the notable citizens After that his soldiers killed all the guests and he marched into the city with the army slaying most of Alexandria's people In he issued the Edict of Caracalla giving full Roman citizenship to all free men living in the Empire Caracalla was murdered by one of his soldiers during a campaign in Parthia in AD The Praetorian prefect Macrinus who ordered Caracalla's murder assumed power His brief reign ended in when the youngster Elagabalus a relative of the Severi gained support from the legionaries and fought against Macrinus Elagabalus was an incompetent and lascivious ruler who was well known for extreme extravagance Cassius Dio Herodian and the Historia Augusta have many accounts about his extravagance Elagabalus was succeeded by his cousin Alexander Severus Alexander waged war against many foes like the revitalized Persia and German peoples who invaded Gaul His losses made the soldiers dissatisfied with the emperor and some of them killed him during his German campaign in AD Crisis of the Third Century Main article Crisis of the Third Century The Roman Empire suffered internal schisms forming the Palmyrene Empire and the Gallic Empire A disastrous scenario emerged after the death of Alexander Severus the Roman state was plagued by civil wars external invasions political chaos pandemics and economic depression The old Roman values had fallen and Mithraism and Christianity had begun to spread through the populace Emperors were no longer men linked with nobility they usually were born in lower classes of distant parts of the Empire These men rose to prominence through military ranks and became emperors through civil wars There were emperors in a year period a signal of political instability Maximinus Thrax was the first ruler of that time governing for just three years Others ruled just for a few months like Gordian I Gordian II Balbinus and Hostilian The population and the frontiers were abandoned since the emperors were mostly concerned with defeating rivals and establishing their power The economy also suffered during that epoch The massive military expenditures from the Severi caused a devaluation of Roman coins Hyperinflation came at this time as well The Plague of Cyprian broke out in and killed a huge portion of the population In AD the provinces of Syria Palaestina Asia Minor and Egypt separated from the rest of the Roman state to form the Palmyrene Empire ruled by Queen Zenobia and centered on Palmyra In that same year the Gallic Empire was created by Postumus retaining Britain and Gaul These countries separated from Rome after the capture of emperor Valerian who was the first Roman ruler to be captured by enemies Valerian was captured and executed by the Sassanids of Persia – a humiliating fact for the Romans The crisis began to recede during the reigns of Claudius Gothicus – who defeated the Gothic invaders and Aurelian – who reconquered both the Gallic and Palmyrene Empires During the reign of Diocletian a more competent ruler the crisis was overcome Empire – the Dominate Main article Roman Empire Diocletian In AD Diocletian was hailed as Imperator by the eastern army Diocletian healed the empire from the crisis by political and economic shifts A new form of government was established the Tetrarchy The Empire was divided among four emperors two in the West and two in the East The first tetrarchs were Diocletian in the East Maximian in the West and two junior emperors Galerius in the East and Flavius Constantius in Daniel Hale Williams performed open-heart surgery in 1893 and founded Provident Hospital in Chicago, the first with an interracial staff.[24] 1895 September 18 – Booker T. Washington delivers his Atlanta Compromise address at the Cotton States and International Exposition in Atlanta, Georgia. W. E. B. Du Bois is the first African-American to be awarded a Ph.D by Harvard University. 1896 May 18 – In Plessy v. Ferguson, the U.S. Supreme Court upholds de jure racial segregation of "separate but equal" facilities. (see "Jim Crow laws" for historical discussion). The National Association of Colored Women is formed by the merger of smaller groups. As one of the earliest Black Hebrew Israelites in the United States, William Saunders Crowdy re-establishes the Church of God and Saints of Christ. George Washington Carver is invited by Booker T. Washington to head the Agricultural Department at what would become Tuskegee University. His work would revolutionize farming – he found about 300 uses for peanuts. 1898 Louisiana enacts the first statewide grandfather clause that provides exemption for illiterate whites to voter registration literacy test requirements. In Williams v. Mississippi the U.S. Supreme Court upholds the voter registration and election provisions of Mississippi's constitution because they applied to all citizens. Effectively, however, they disenfranchise blacks and poor whites. The result is that other southern states copy these provisions in their new constitutions and amendments through 1908, disfranchising most African Americans and tens of thousands of poor whites until the 1960s. November 10 – Coup d'état begins in Wilmington, North Carolina, resulting in considerable loss of life and property in the African-American community and the installation of a white supremacist Democratic Party regime. 1899 September 18 – The "Maple Leaf Rag" is an early ragtime composition for piano by Scott Joplin. 20th century[edit] 1900–1924[edit] 1900 Since the Civil War, 30,000 African-American teachers had been trained and put to work in the South. The majority of blacks had become literate.[25] 1901 Booker T. Washington's autobiography Up from Slavery is published. Benjamin Tillman, senator from South Carolina, comments on Theodore Roosevelt's dining with Booker T. Washington: “The action of President Roosevelt in entertaining that nigger will necessitate our killing a thousand niggers in the South before they learn their place again.”[26] 1903 September – W. E. B. Du Bois's article The Talented Tenth published. W. E. B. Du Bois's seminal work The Souls of Black Folk is published. 1904 May 15 – Sigma Pi Phi, the first African-American Greek-letter organization, is founded by African-American men as a professional organization, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Orlando, Florida hires its first black postman. 1905 July 11 – First meeting of the Niagara Movement, an interracial group to work for civil rights.[27] 1906 The Brownsville Affair, which eventually involves President Roosevelt.[27] December 4 – African-American men found Alpha Phi Alpha at Cornell University, the first intercollegiate fraternity for African-American men. 1907 National Primitive Baptist Convention of the U.S.A. formed. 1908 December 26 – Jack Johnson wins the World Heavyweight Title. Alpha Kappa Alpha at Howard University; African-American college women found the first college sorority for African-American women. 1909 February 12 – Planned first meeting of group which would become the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), an interracial group devoted to civil rights. The meeting actually occurs on May 31, but February 12 is normally cited as the NAACP's founding date. May 31 – The National Negro Committee meets and is formed; it will be the precursor to the NAACP. 1910 May 30 – The National Negro Committee chooses "National Association for the Advancement of Colored People" as its organization name. September 29 – Committee on Urban Conditions Among Negroes formed; the next year it will merge with other groups to form the National Urban League. The NAACP begins publishing The Crisis. 1911 January 5 – Kappa Alpha Psi Fraternity, Inc. was founded at Indiana University. November 17 – Omega Psi Phi Fraternity, Inc., which is the first African-American Greek-lettered organization founded at an HBCU (Howard University). 1913 The Moorish Science Temple of America, a religious organization, is founded by Noble Drew Ali (Timothy Drew). January 13 – Delta Sigma Theta Sorority, Inc., was founded at Howard University 1914 January 9 – Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity, Inc. was founded at Howard University by A. Langston Taylor, Leonard F. Morse, and Charles I. Brown Newly elected president Woodrow Wilson orders physical re-segregation of federal workplaces and employment after nearly 50 years of integrated facilities.[28][29][30] 1915 February 8 – The Birth of a Nation is released to film theaters. The NAACP protests in cities across the country, convincing some not to show the film. June 21 – In Guinn v. United States, the U.S. Supreme Court rules against grandfather clauses used to deny blacks the right to vote. September 9 – Professor Carter G. Woodson founds the Association for the Study of African American Life and History in Chicago. A schism from the National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc. forms the National Baptist Convention of America, Inc. 1916 January – Professor Carter Woodson and the Association for the Study of Negro Life and History begins publishing the Journal of Negro History, the first academic journal devoted to the study of African-American history. March 23 – Marcus Garvey arrives in the U.S. (see Garveyism). Los Angeles hires the country's first black female police officer.[citation needed] The Great Migration begins and lasts until 1940. Approximately one and a half million African-Americans move from the Southern United States to the North and Midwest. More than five million migrate in the Second Great Migration from 1940 to 1970, which includes more destinations in California and the West. 1917 May–June – East St. Louis Riot August 23 – Houston Riot In Buchanan v. Warley, the U.S. Supreme Court upholds that racially segregated housing violates the 14th Amendment. 1918 Viola Pettus, an African-American nurse in Marathon, Texas, wins attention for her courageous care of victims of the Spanish Influenza, including members of the Ku Klux Klan. Mary Turner was a 33-year-old lynched in Lowndes County, Georgia who was Eight months pregnant. Turner and her child were murdered after she publicly denounced the extrajudicial killing of her husband by a mob. Her death is considered a stark example of racially motivated mob violence in the American south, and was referenced by the NAACP's anti-lynching campaign of the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s. 1919 Summer – Red Summer of 1919 riots: Chicago, Washington, D.C.; Knoxville, Indianapolis, and elsewhere. September 28 – Omaha Race Riot of 1919, Nebraska. October 1–5 – Elaine Race Riot, Phillips County, Arkansas. Numerous blacks are convicted by an all-white jury or plead guilty. In Moore v. Dempsey (1923), the U.S. Supreme Court overturns six convictions for denial of due process under the Fourteenth Amendment. 1920 February 13 – Negro National League (1920–1931) established. Fritz Pollard and Bobby Marshall are the first two African-American players in the National Football League (NFL). Pollard goes on to become the first African-American coach in the NFL. January 16 – Zeta Phi Beta Sorority, Inc., was founded at Howard University 1921 May 23 – Shuffle Along is the first major African American hit musical on Broadway. May 31 – Tulsa Race Riot, Oklahoma Bessie Coleman becomes the first African American to earn a pilot's license. 1923 Garrett A. Morgan invented and patented the first automatic three-position traffic light.[31] January 1–7 – Rosewood massacre: Six African Americans and two whites die in a week of violence when a white woman in Rosewood, Florida, claims she was beaten and raped by a black man. February 19 – In Moore v. Dempsey, the U.S. Supreme Court holds that mob-dominated trials violate the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Jean Toomer's novel Cane is published. 1924 Knights of Columbus commissions and publishes The Gift of Black Folk: The Negroes in the Making of America by civil rights activist and NAACP cofounder W. E. B. Du Bois as part of the organization's Racial Contribution Series. Spelman Seminary becomes Spelman College. 1925–1949[edit] 1925 Spring – American Negro Labor Congress is founded. August 8 – 35,000 Ku Klux Klan members march in Washington, D.C. (see List of protest marches on Washington, D.C.) Countee Cullen publishes his first collection of poems in Color. Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters is organized. The Harlem Renaissance (also known as the New Negro Movement) is named after the anthology The New Negro, edited by Alain Locke . 1926 The Harlem Globetrotters are founded. Historian Carter G. Woodson proposes Negro History Week. Corrigan v Buckley challenges deed restrictions preventing a white seller from selling to a black buyer. The U.S. Supreme Court rules in favor of Buckley, stating that the 14th Amendment does not apply because Washington, DC is a city and not a state, thereby rendering the Due Process Clause inapplicable. Also, that the Due Process Clause does not apply to private agreements. 1928 Claude McKay's Home to Harlem wins the Harmon Gold Award for Literature. 1929 The League of United Latin American Citizens, the first organization to fight for the civil rights of Latino Americans, is founded in Corpus Christi, Texas. John Hope becomes president of Atlanta University. Graduate classes are offered in the liberal arts, and Atlanta University becomes the first predominantly black university to offer graduate education. Unknown – Hallelujah! is released, one of the first films to star an all-black cast. 1930 August 7 – Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith were African-American men lynched in Marion, Indiana, after being taken from jail and beaten by a mob. They had been arrested that night as suspects in a robbery, murder and rape case. A third African-American suspect, 16-year-old James Cameron, had also been arrested and narrowly escaped being killed by the mob. He later became a civil rights activist.[32] The League of Struggle for Negro Rights is founded in New York City. Jessie Daniel Ames forms the Association of Southern Women for the Prevention of Lynching. She gets 40,000 white women to sign a pledge against lynching and for change in the South.[33] 1931 March 25 – Scottsboro Boys arrested in what would become a nationally controversial case. Walter Francis White becomes the executive secretary of the NAACP. 1932 The Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male begins at Tuskegee University. 1933 Hocutt v. Wilson unsuccessfully challenged segregation in higher education in the United States. 1934 Wallace D. Fard, leader of the Nation of Islam, mysteriously disappears. He is succeeded by Elijah Muhammad. 1935 June 18 – In Murray v. Pearson, Thurgood Marshall and Charles Hamilton Houston of the NAACP successfully argue the landmark case in Maryland to open admissions to the segregated University of Maryland School of Law on the basis of equal protection under the Fourteenth Amendment. Jesse Owens wins gold medals in front of Hitler. 1936 August – American sprinter Jesse Owens wins four gold medals at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin. 1937 6.2.1 General works 6.2.2 Baseball 6.2.3 Boxing 6.2.4 Chess 6.2.5 Olympics Athletes[edit] Baseball[edit] Ryan Braun, outfielder (Milwaukee Brewers) Ike Davis, first baseman (Oakland Athletics) Ian Kinsler, second baseman (Detroit Tigers) Ryan Lavarnway, catcher (Atlanta Braves) Jason Marquis, pitcher (Cincinnati Reds) Joc Pederson, outfielder (Los Angeles Dodgers) Kevin Youkilis, first and third baseman Cal Abrams, US, outfielder[2] Rubén Amaro, Jr., US, outfielder, general manager (Philadelphia Phillies)[2] Morrie Arnovich, US, outfielder, All-Star[2] Brad Ausmus, US, catcher, All-Star, 3x Gold Glove, manager of the Detroit Tigers[2] José Bautista, Dominican-born, pitcher[2] Robert "Bo" Belinsky, U.S., pitcher. Pitched no-hit game as rookie with Los Angeles Angels in 1962.[3] Moe Berg, US, catcher & shortstop, and spy for US in World War II[2] Ron Blomberg, US, DH/first baseman/outfielder, Major League Baseball's first designated hitter[4] Lou Boudreau, US, shortstop, 8x All-Star, batting title, MVP, Baseball Hall of Fame, manager[2] Ralph Branca, US, pitcher, 3x All-Star[5] Ryan Braun, US, outfielder, 2007 Rookie of the Year, home run champion, 5x All-Star, 5x Silver Slugger, 2011 National League MVP (Milwaukee Brewers)[6] Craig Breslow, US, relief pitcher (Boston Red Sox)[2] Mark Clear, US, relief pitcher, 2x All-Star[7] Andy Cohen, US, second baseman, coach Harry Danning, US, catcher, 4x All-Star[2][8] Ike Davis, US, first baseman (Oakland Athletics)[9] Moe Drabowsky, US, pitcher[10] Harry Eisenstat, US, pitcher[11] Mike Epstein, US, first baseman[2] Harry Feldman, US, pitcher[2] Scott Feldman, US, pitcher (Houston Astros)[2] Gavin Fingleson, South African-born Australian, Olympic silver medalist[12] Nate Freiman, US, first baseman (Oakland Athletics)[13][14] Sam Fuld, US, outfielder (Oakland Athletics)[15] Sid Gordon, US, outfielder & third baseman, 2x All-Star[2] John Grabow, US, relief pitcher[2] Shawn Green, US, right fielder, 2x All-Star, Gold Glove, Silver Slugger[2] Hank Greenberg, US, first baseman & outfielder, 5x All-Star, 4x home run champion, 4x RBI leader, 2x MVP, Baseball Hall of Fame[2] Ken Holtzman, US, starting pitcher, 2x All-Star[2] Joe Horlen, US, pitcher, All-Star, ERA leader[2] Gabe Kapler, US, outfielder[2] Ian Kinsler, US, second baseman, 3x All-Star (Detroit Tigers)[16] Sandy Koufax, US, starting pitcher, 6x All-Star, 5x ERA leader, 4x strikeouts leader, 3x Wins leader, 2x W-L% leader, 1 perfect game, MVP, 3x Cy Young Award, Baseball Hall of Fame[2] Barry Latman, US, pitcher[11] Ryan Lavarnway, US, catcher (Atlanta Braves)[17] Al Levine, US, relief pitcher[2] Mike Lieberthal, US, catcher, 2x All-Star, Gold Glove[2] Elliott Maddox, US, outfielder & third baseman[2] Jason Marquis, US, starting pitcher, Silver Slugger, All Star (Cincinnati Reds)[2] Erskine Mayer, US, pitcher[2] Bob Melvin, US, catcher & manager of the Oakland Athletics[18] Jon Moscot, US, pitcher (Cincinnati Reds)[19] Jeff Newman, US, catcher & first baseman, All-Star, manager[2] Joc Pederson, US, outfielder (Los Angeles Dodgers)[20] Barney Pelty, US, pitcher[2] Lipman Pike, US, outfielder, second baseman, & manager, 4x home run champion, RBI leader[2] Kevin Pillar, US, outfielder (Toronto Blue Jays) Aaron Poreda, US, pitcher (Yomiuri Giants)[2] Scott Radinsky, US, relief pitcher[2] Dave Roberts, US, pitcher[2] Saul Rogovin, US, pitcher[2] Al "Flip" Rosen, US, third baseman & first baseman, 4x All-Star, 2x home run champion, 2x RBI leader, MVP[2] Goody Rosen, Canada, outfielder, All-Star[2] Josh Satin, US, second baseman (Cincinnati Reds)[21] Richie Scheinblum, US, outfielder, All-Star[2] Scott Schoeneweis, US, pitcher[2] Michael Schwimer, US, relief pitcher (Toronto Blue Jays)[22] Art Shamsky, US, outfielder & first baseman[2] Larry Sherry, US, relief pitcher[2] Norm Sherry, US, catcher & manager[2] Moe "the Rabbi of Swat" Solomon, US, outfielder[2] George Stone, US, outfielder, 1x batting title[23] Steve Stone, US, starting pitcher, All-Star, Cy Young Award[2] Danny Valencia, US, third baseman (Oakland Athletics)[24] Phil "Mickey" Weintraub, US, first baseman & outfielder Josh Whitesell, US, first baseman (Saraperos de Saltillo)[25] Steve Yeager, US, catcher[2] Kevin Youkilis, US, first baseman, third baseman, & left fielder, 3x All-Star, Gold Glove, Hank Aaron Award[2] Josh Zeid, US, pitcher for the Detroit Tigers Basketball[edit] Omri Casspi Jordan Farmar Gal Mekel Jon Scheyer Sam Balter, US, 5' 10" guard, Olympic champion[8][26] Sue Bird, US & Israel, WNBA 5' 9" point guard, 2x Olympic champion, 4x All-Star (Seattle Storm)[27] David Blatt, US & Israel, Israeli Premier League 6' 3.5" point guard, coached Russia National Basketball Team, Israel's Maccabi Tel Aviv to Euroleague Championship, Euroleague Coach of the Year, 4x Israeli Coach of the Year, Head Coach of Cleveland Cavaliers[28][29] David Blu (formerly "Bluthenthal"), US & Israel, Euroleague 6' 7" forward (Maccabi Tel Aviv)[30] Harry Boykoff, US, NBA 6' 10" center[31] Tal Brody, US & Israel, Euroleague 6' 2" shooting guard[8] Larry Brown, US, ABA 5' 9" point guard, 3x All-Star, 3x assists leader, NCAA National Championship coach (1988), NBA coach, Olympic champion, Hall of Fame[8][26] Omri Casspi, Israel, 6' 9" small forward, drafted in 1st round of 2009 NBA Draft (Sacramento Kings)[32] Shay Doron, Israel & US, WNBA 5' 9" guard (New York Liberty)[33] Lior Eliyahu, Israel, 6' 9" power forward, NBA draft 2006 (Orlando Magic; traded to Houston Rockets), playing in the Euroleague (Hapoel Jerusalem)[34] Jordan Farmar, US, NBA 6' 2" point guard (Los Angeles Clippers)[35] Marty Friedman, US, 5' 7" guard & coach, Hall of Fame[8] Ernie Grunfeld, Romania-born US, NBA 6' 6" guard/forward & GM, Olympic champion[36] Yotam Halperin, Israel, 6' 5" guard, drafted in 2006 NBA draft by Seattle SuperSonics (Hapoel Jerusalem)[34] Sonny Hertzberg, US, NBA 5' 9" point guard, original NY Knickerbocker[37] Art Heyman, US, NBA 6' 5" forward/guard[37] Nat Holman, US, ABL 5' 11" guard & coach, Hall of Fame[8] Red Holzman, US, BAA & NBA 5' 10" guard, 2x All-Star, & NBA coach, NBA Coach of the Year, Hall of Fame[8] Eban Hyams, India-Israel-Australia, 6' 5" guard formerly of the Australian National Basketball League, Israeli Super League, first ever Indian national to play in ULEB competitions[38] Barry Kramer, first team All-American at NYU in 1963 Joel Kramer, US Phoenix Suns 6'7" forward Sylven Landesberg, US, 6' 6" former UVA shooting guard (Maccabi Tel Aviv)[39] Rudy LaRusso, US, NBA 6' 7" forward/center, 5x All-Star[40] Nancy Lieberman, US, WNBA player, general manager, & coach, Olympic silver, Hall of Fame[26][41] Gal Mekel, Israel, NBA 6' 3" point guard (Dallas Mavericks)[42] Bernard Opper, US, NBL and ABL 5' 10" guard, All-American at University of Kentucky Donna Orender (née Geils), US, Women's Pro Basketball League 5' 7" point guard, All-Star, current WNBA president[37] Lennie Rosenbluth, US, NBA 6' 4" forward[36] Danny Schayes, US, NBA 6' 11" center/forward (son of Dolph Schayes)[37] Dolph Schayes, US, NBA 6' 7" forward/center, 3x FT% leader, 1x rebound leader, 12x All-Star, Hall of Fame, & coach (father of Danny Schayes)[8] Ossie Schectman, US, NBA 6' 0" guard, scorer of first NBA basket[36] Doron Sheffer, US (college), Maccabi Tel Aviv,Hapoel Jerusalem Jon Scheyer, US, All-American Duke University 6' 5" shooting guard & point guard (Maccabi Tel Aviv)[43] Barney Sedran, US, Hudson River League & New York State League 5' 4" guard, Hall of Fame[8] Sidney Tannenbaum, US, BAA 6' 0" guard, 2x All-American, left as NYU all-time scorer[8] Alex Tyus, US & Israel, 6' 8" power forward/center (Maccabi Tel Aviv) Neal Walk, US, NBA 6' 10" center[37] Max Zaslofsky, US, NBA 6' 2" guard/forward, 1x FT% leader, 1x points leader, All-Star, ABA coach[8] Bowling[edit] Barry Asher, 10 PBA titles, PBA Hall of Fame[7] Marshall Holman, 22 PBA titles (11th all-time); PBA Hall of Fame[44] Mark Roth, 34 PBA titles (5th all-time); PBA Hall of Fame[45] Boxing[edit] Yuri Foreman Zab Judah Dmitry Salita Barney Aaron (Young), English-born US lightweight, Hall of Fame[46] Abe Attell ("The Little Hebrew"), US, world champion featherweight, Hall of Fame[8] Monte Attell ("The Knob Hill Terror"), US, bantamweight[47] Max Baer ("Madcap Maxie"), US, world champion heavyweight. Wore a Star of David on his trunks; inducted into the International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame. Hall of Fame/[48] Benny Bass ("Little Fish"), US, world champion featherweight & world champion junior lightweight, Hall of Fame[8] Fabrice Benichou, France, world champion super bantamweight[34] Jack Kid Berg (Judah Bergman), England, world champion junior welterweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks, Hall of Fame[8] Maxie Berger, Canada, wore a Star of David on his trunks[49] Samuel Berger, US, Olympic champion heavyweight[8] Jack Bernstein (also "John Dodick", "Kid Murphy", and "Young Murphy"), US, world champion junior lightweight[8] Nathan "Nat" Bor, US, Olympic bronze lightweight[26] Mushy Callahan (Vincente Sheer), US, world champion light welterweight[47] Joe Choynski ("Chrysanthemum Joe"), US, heavyweight, Hall of Fame[8][50] Robert Cohen, French & Algerian, world champion bantamweight[8] Al "Bummy" Davis (Abraham Davidoff), US, welterweight & lightweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks[47] Louis "Red" Deutsch, US, heavyweight, later famous as the proprietor of the Tube Bar in Jersey City, NJ and inspiration for Moe Szyslak on "The Simpsons" Carolina Duer ("The Turk"), Argentine, WBO world champion super flyweight and bantamweight[51] John "Jackie" Fields (Jacob Finkelstein), US, world champion welterweight & Olympic champion featherweight, Hall of Fame[8] Hagar Finer, Israel, WIBF champion bantamweight[52] Yuri Foreman, Belarusian-born Israeli US middleweight and World Boxing Association champion super welterweight[53] György Gedó, Hungary, Olympic champion light flyweight[41] Abe Goldstein, US, world champion bantamweight[54] Ruby Goldstein ("Ruby the Jewel of the Ghetto"), US, welterweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks[8] Roman Greenberg ("The Lion from Zion"), Israel, International Boxing Organization's Intercontinental champion heavyweight[53] Stéphane Haccoun, France, featherweight, super featherweight, and junior lightweight[55][56] Alphonse Halimi ("La Petite Terreur"), France, world champion bantamweight[8] Harry Harris ("The Human Hairpin"), US, world champion bantamweight[8] Gary Jacobs, Scottish, British, Commonwealth, and European (EBU) champion welterweight[57] Ben Jeby (Morris Jebaltowsky), US, world champion middleweight[47] Yoel Judah, US, 3x world champion kickboxer and boxer & trainer[58] Zab Judah ("Super"), US, world champion junior welterweight & world champion welterweight (Converted to Christianity)[58][59][60][61] Louis Kaplan ("Kid Kaplan"), Russian-born US, world champion featherweight, Hall of Fame[8][50] Solly Krieger ("Danny Auerbach"), US, world champion middleweight[8] Julie Kogon US, 1947 New England Lightweight Champion. Inducted into the Connecticut Boxing Hall of Fame. Benny Leonard (Benjamin Leiner; "The Ghetto Wizard"), US, world champion lightweight, Hall of Fame[8] Battling Levinsky (Barney Lebrowitz), US, world champion light heavyweight, Hall of Fame[8] King Levinsky (Harry Kraków), US, heavweight, also known as Kingfish Levinsky[8] Harry Lewis (Harry Besterman), US, world champion welterweight[47] Ted "Kid" Lewis (Gershon Mendeloff), England, world champion welterweight, Hall of Fame[8] Sammy Luftspring, Canada, Canadian champion welterweight, Canada's Sports Hall of Fame[47] Saoul Mamby, US, world champion junior welterweight[47] Al McCoy (Alexander Rudolph), US, world champion middleweight[8] Daniel Mendoza, England, world champion heavyweight, Hall of Fame[8] Jacob Michaelsen, Denmark, Olympic bronze heavyweight[26] Samuel Mosberg, US, Olympic champion lightweight[8] Bob Olin, US, world champion light heavyweight[62] Victor Perez ("Young"), Tunisian, world champion flyweight[8] Harold Reitman ("The Boxing Doctor"), professional heavyweight that fought while working as surgeon, Golden Gloves champion.[63] Charlie Phil Rosenberg ("Charles Green"), US, world champion bantamweight[8] Dana Rosenblatt ("Dangerous"), US, world champion middleweight[64] Maxie Rosenbloom ("Slapsie"), US, world champion light heavyweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks, Hall of Fame[8] Barney Ross (Dov-Ber Rasofsky), US, world champion lightweight & junior welterweight, Hall of Fame[8] Mike Rossman (Michael Albert DiPiano; "The Jewish Bomber"), US, world champion light heavyweight, wore Star of David on trunks[64] Shamil Sabirov, Russia, Olympic champion light flyweight[26] Dmitry Salita ("Star of David"), US, North American Boxing Association champion light welterweight[65] Isadore "Corporal Izzy" Schwartz ("The Ghetto Midget"), US, world champion flyweight[8] Al Singer ("The Bronx Beauty"), US, world champion lightweight[47] "Lefty" Lew Tendler, US, bantamweight, lightweight, and welterweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks, Hall of Fame[8] Sid Terris ("Ghost of the Ghetto"), US, lightweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks[54] Matt Wels, England, champion of Great Britain lightweight and world champion welterweight Canoeing[edit] Jessica Fox Shaun Rubenstein László Fábián, Hungary, sprint canoer, Olympic champion (K-2 10,000 meter), 4x world champion (3x K-2 10,000 meter and 1x K-4 10,000 meter) and one silver (K-4 10,000 meter)[26] Imre Farkas, Hungary, sprint canoer, 2x Olympic bronze (C-2 1,000 and 10,000 meter)[66] Jessica Fox, French-born Australian, slalom canoer, Olympic silver (K-1 slalom), world championships bronze (C-1)[67] Myriam Fox-Jerusalmi, France, slalom canoer, Olympic bronze (K-1 slalom), 5 golds at ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships (2x K-1, 3x K-1 team)[41] Klára Fried-Bánfalvi, Hungary, sprint canoer, Olympic bronze (K-2 500 m), world champion (K-2 500 m)[26] Leonid Geishtor, USSR (Belarus), sprint canoer, Olympic champion (Canadian pairs 1,000-meter)[41] Joe Jacobi, US, slalom canoer, Olympic champion (Canadian slalom pairs)[41] Michael Kolganov, Soviet (Uzbek)-born Israeli, sprint canoer, world champion, Olympic bronze (K-1 500-meter)[41] Anna Pfeffer, Hungary, sprint canoer, Olympic 2x silver (K-2 500 m), bronze (K-1 500 m); world champion (K-2 500 m), silver (K-4 500 m), 2x bronze (K-2 500)[26] Naum Prokupets, Moldovan-born Soviet, sprint canoer, Olympic bronze (C-2 1,000-meter), gold (C-2 10,000-meter) at ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships[41] Leon Rotman, Romanian, sprint canoer, 2x Olympic champion (C-1 10,000 meter, C-1 1,000-meter) and bronze (C-1 1,000-meter), 14 national titles[41] Shaun Rubenstein, South Africa, canoer, World Marathon champion 2006[68] Cricket[edit] Michael Klinger Ben Ashkenazi, Australia (Victorian Bushrangers) Ali Bacher, South Africa, batsman and administrator (relative of Adam Bacher)[69] Mike Barnard, England, cricketer[69] Mark Bott, England, cricketer[70] Stevie Eskinazi, South African born, Australian raised, English wicketkeeper Mark Fuzes. Australian all rounder played for Hong Kong. Father Peter Fuzes kept goal for Australian Soccer team (see)[71] Dennis Gamsy, South Africa, Test wicket-keeper[72] Darren Gerard, England, cricketer[73] Norman Gordon, South Africa, fast bowler[69] Steven Herzberg, English-born Australian, cricketer[74] Sid Kiel, South Africa, opening batsman (Western Province)[75] Michael Klinger, Australia, batsman (Western Warriors)[69] Leonard "Jock" Livingston, Australia, cricketer[69] Bev Lyon, England, cricketer[69] Dar Lyon, England, cricketer (brother of Bev)[69] Greg, Jason, and Lara Molins, two brothers and a cousin from the same Irish family[74] Jon Moss, Australia, allrounder (Victorian Bushrangers)[69] John Raphael, England, batsman[69] Marshall Rosen, NSW Australia, cricketer and selector[76] Lawrence Seeff, South Africa, batsmen[77] Maurice Sievers, Australia, lower order batsman and fast-medium bowler[69] Bensiyon Songavkar, India, cricketer, MVP of 2009 Maccabiah Games cricket tournament[78] Fred Susskind, South Africa, Test batsman[69] Fred Trueman, England, English test fast bowler (a lifelong Christian)[69] Julien Wiener, Australia, Test cricketer[69] Mandy Yachad, South Africa, Test cricketer[69] Equestrian[edit] Margie Goldstein-Engle Robert Dover, US, 4x Olympic bronze, 1x world championship bronze (dressage)[79] Margie Goldstein-Engle, US, world championship silver, Pan American Games gold, silver, and bronze (jumping)[80] Edith Master, US, Olympic bronze (dressage)[26] Fencing[edit] Helene Mayer Soren Thompson Henri Anspach, Belgium (épée & foil), Olympic champion[26] Paul Anspach, Belgium (épée & foil), 2x Olympic champion[26] Norman Armitage (Norman Cohn), US (sabre), 17x US champion, Olympic bronze[26] Albert "Albie" Axelrod, US (foil); Olympic bronze, 4x US champion[8] Péter Bakonyi, Hungary (saber), Olympic 3x bronze[41] Cliff Bayer, US (foil); youngest US champion[37] Albert Bogen (Albert Bógathy), Austria (saber), Olympic silver[41] Tamir Bloom, US (épée); 2x US champion[37] Daniel Bukantz, US (foil); 4x US champion[37] Sergey Sharikov, Russia (saber), 2x Olympic champion, silver, bronze[26] Yves Dreyfus, France (épée), Olympic bronze, French champion[26] Ilona Elek, Hungary (saber), 2x Olympic champion[26] Boaz Ellis, Israel (foil), 5x Israeli champion[34] Siegfried "Fritz" Flesch, Austria (sabre), Olympic bronze[26] Dr. Dezsö Földes, Hungary (saber), 2x Olympic champion[26] Dr. Jenö Fuchs, Hungary (saber), 4x Olympic champion[81] Támas Gábor, Hungary (épée), Olympic champion[8] János Garay, Hungary (saber), Olympic champion, silver, bronze, killed by the Nazis[8] Dr. Oskar Gerde, Hungary (saber), 2x Olympic champion, killed by the Nazis[26] Dr. Sándor Gombos, Hungary (saber), Olympic champion[62] Vadim Gutzeit, Ukraine (saber), Olympic champion[82] Johan Harmenberg, Sweden (épée), Olympic champion[26] Delila Hatuel, Israel (foil), Olympian, ranked # 9 in world[83] Lydia Hatuel-Zuckerman, Israel (foil), 6x Israeli champion[84][85] Dr. Otto Herschmann, Austria (saber), Olympic silver[26] Emily Jacobson, US (saber), NCAA champion[86] Sada Jacobson, US (saber), ranked # 1 in the world, Olympic silver, 2x bronze[86] Allan Jay, British (épée & foil), Olympic 2x silver, world champion[26] Endre Kabos, Hungary (saber), 3x Olympic champion, bronze[26] Roman Kantor, Poland (épée), Nordic champion & Soviet champion, killed by the Nazis[26] Dan Kellner, US (foil), US champion[86] Byron Krieger, US[87] Grigory Kriss, Soviet (épée), Olympic champion, 2x silver[26] Allan Kwartler, US (saber), 3x Pan American Games champion[10] Alexandre Lippmann, France (épée), 2x Olympic champion, 2x silver, bronze[8] Helene Mayer, Germany & US (foil), Olympic champion[26] Ljubco Georgievski ????? ??????????? Kiro Gligorov ???? ???????? Nikola Gruevski ?????? ???????? Gjorge Ivanov ????? ?????? Gordana Jankuloska ??????? ?????????? Zoran Jolevski ????? ???????? Srgjan Kerim ????? ????? Lazar Koliševski ????? ?????????? Hari Kostov ???? ?????? Trifun Kostovski ?????? ????????? Ilinka Mitreva ?????? ??????? Lazar Mojsov ????? ?????? Tito Petkovski ???? ????????? Lui Temelkovski ??? ??????????? Boris Trajkovski ????? ?????????? Vasil Tupurkovski ????? ??????????? Zoran Zaev ????? ???? Partisans World War II freedom fighters edit Mirce Acev ????? ???? Mihajlo Apostolski ????j?? ?????????? Cede Filipovski Dame ???? ?????????? ???? Blagoj Jankov Muceto ?????? ?????? ?????? Orce Nikolov ???? ??????? Strašo Pindžur ?????? ?????? Hristijan Todorovski Karpoš ????????? ?????????? ?????? Revolutionaries edit Yordan Piperkata ?????? ???????? ????????? Goce Delcev ???? ????? Petar Pop Arsov ????? ??? ????? Dame Gruev ???? ????? Jane Sandanski ???? ????????? Dimitar Pop Georgiev Berovski ??????? ??? ???????? ???????? Ilyo Voyvoda ???? ??? ?????????? Pere Tošev ???? ????? Pitu Guli ???? ???? Dimo Hadži Dimov ???? ???? ????? Hristo Uzunov ?????? ?????? Literature edit Gjorgji Abadžiev ????? ??????? Petre M Andreevski ????? ? ?????????? Maja Apostoloska ???? ??????????? Dimitrija Cupovski ????????? ???????? Jordan Hadži Konstantinov Džinot ?????? ???? ???????????? ????? Vasil Iljoski ????? ?????? Slavko Janevski ?????? ???????? Blaže Koneski ????? ??????? Risto Krle ????? ???? Vlado Maleski ????? ??????? Mateja Matevski ?????? ???????? Krste Misirkov ????? ????????? Kole Nedelkovski ???? ??????????? Olivera Nikolova Anton Panov ????? ????? Gjorche Petrov ????? ?????? Vidoe Podgorec ????? ???????? Aleksandar Prokopiev ?????????? ????????? Koco Racin ???? ????? Jovica Tasevski Eternijan ?????? ???????? ????????? Gane Todorovski ???? ?????????? Stevan Ognenovski ?????? ?????????? Music edit Classical music edit Composers edit Atanas Badev ?????? ????? Dimitrije Bužarovski ????????? ?????????? Kiril Makedonski ????? ?????????? Toma Prošev ???? ?????? Todor Skalovski ????? ????????? Stojan Stojkov ?????? ??????? Aleksandar Džambazov ?????????? ???????? Conductors edit Borjan Canev ?????? ????? Instrumentalists edit Pianists Simon Trpceski ????? ???????? Opera singers edit Blagoj Nacoski ?????? ??????? Boris Trajanov ????? ???????? Popular and folk music edit Composers edit Darko Dimitrov ????? ???????? Slave Dimitrov ????? ???????? Jovan Jovanov ????? ??????? Ilija Pejovski ????? ???????? Musicians edit Bodan Arsovski ????? ???????? Goran Trajkoski ????? ????????? Ratko Dautovski ????? ????????? Kiril Džajkovski ????? ????????? Tale Ognenovski ???? ?????????? Vlatko Stefanovski ?????? ??????????? Stevo Teodosievski ????? ???????????? Aleksandra Popovska ?????????? ???????? Singers and Bands edit Lambe Alabakoski ????? ?????????? Anastasia ????????? Arhangel ???????? Kristina Arnaudova ???????? ????????? Kaliopi Bukle ??????? Dani Dimitrovska ???? ??????????? Riste Tevdoski ????? ???????? Karolina Goceva ???????? ?????? Vaska Ilieva ????? ?????? Andrijana Janevska ????????? ???????? Vlado Janevski ????? ???????? Jovan Jovanov ????? ??????? Leb i sol ??? ? ??? Aleksandar Makedonski ?????????? ?????????? Elvir Mekic ????? ????? Mizar ????? Jasmina Mukaetova ??????? ????e???? The Malagasy French Malgache are the ethnic group that forms nearly the entire population of Madagascar They are divided into two subgroups the "Highlander" Merina Sihanaka and Betsileo of the central plateau around Antananarivo Alaotra Ambatondrazaka and Fianarantsoa and the "coastal dwellers" elsewhere in the country This division has its roots in historical patterns of settlement The original Austronesian settlers from Borneo arrived between the third and tenth centuries and established a network of principalities in the Central Highlands region conducive to growing the rice they had carried with them on their outrigger canoes Sometime later a large number of settlers arrived from East Africa and established kingdoms along the relatively unpopulated coastlines The difference in ethnic origins remains somewhat evident between the highland and coastal regions In addition to the ethnic distinction between highland and coastal Malagasy one may speak of a political distinction as well Merina monarchs in the late th and early th century united the Merina principalities and brought the neighboring Betsileo people under their administration first They later extended Merina control over the majority of the coastal areas as well The military resistance and eventual defeat of most of the coastal communities assured their subordinate position vis à vis the Merina Betsileo alliance During the th and th centuries the French colonial administration capitalized on and further exacerbated these political inequities by appropriating existing Merina governmental infrastructure to run their colony This legacy of political inequity dogged the people of Madagascar after gaining independence in candidates ethnic and regional identities have often served to help or hinder their success in democratic elections Within these two broad ethnic and political groupings the Malagasy were historically subdivided into specifically named ethnic groups who were primarily distinguished from one another on the basis of cultural practices These were namely agricultural hunting or fishing practices construction style of dwellings music hair and clothing styles and local customs or taboos the latter known in the Malagasy language as fady citation needed The number of such ethnic groups in Madagascar has been debated The practices that distinguished many of these groups are less prevalent in the st century than they were in the past But many Malagasy are proud to proclaim their association with one or several of these groups as part of their own cultural identity "Highlander" ethnic groups Merina Sihanaka Betsileo Zafimaniry Coastal ethnic groups Antaifasy or Antefasy Antaimoro or Temoro or Antemoro Antaisaka or Antesaka Antambahoaka Antandroy or Tandroy Antankarana Antanosy or Tanosy Academia edit Afifi al Akiti Khasnor Johan historian Khoo Kay Kim Jomo Kwame Sundaram Danny Quah Harith Ahmad Architects edit Main article List of Malaysian architects Artists edit Main article List of Malaysian artists Business edit Tan Sri Syed Mokhtar Al Bukhary born Tan Sri Dato Loh Boon Siew – Tan Sri Jeffrey Cheah Tan Sri William Cheng Dato Choong Chin Liang born Tan Sri Dato Tony Fernandes born Lim Goh Tong – Tan Sri Tiong Hiew King Tan Sri Teh Hong Piow born Chung Keng Quee – Tan Sri Ananda Krishnan born Robert Kuok born Tan Sri Quek Leng Chan born Shoba Purushothaman Shah Hakim Zain Halim Saad Tan Sri Mohd Saleh Sulong Tan Sri Vincent Tan born Lillian Too born Tan Sri Dr Francis Yeoh Tun Daim Zainuddin born Tan Sri Kong Hon Kong Designers edit Bernard Chandran fashion designer Jimmy Choo born shoe designer Poesy Liang born artist writer philanthropist jewellery designer industrial designer interior architect music composer Inventors edit Yi Ren Ng inventor of the Lytro Entertainers edit Yasmin Ahmad – film director Stacy Angie Francissca Peter born Jamal Abdillah born Sudirman Arshad – Loganathan Arumugam died Datuk David Arumugam Alleycats Awal Ashaari Alvin Anthons born Asmawi bin Ani born Ahmad Azhar born Ning Baizura born Kasma Booty died Marion Caunter host of One In A Million and the TV Quickie Ella born Erra Fazira born Sean Ghazi born Fauziah Latiff born Angelica Lee born Daniel Lee Chee Hun born Fish Leong born Sheila Majid born Amy Mastura born Mohamad Nasir Mohamad born Shathiyah Kristian born Meor Aziddin Yusof born Ah Niu born Dayang Nurfaizah born Shanon Shah born Siti Nurhaliza born Misha Omar born Hani Mohsin – Aziz M Osman born Azmyl Yunor born P Ramlee born Aziz Sattar born Fasha Sandha born Ku Nazhatul Shima Ku Kamarazzaman born Nicholas Teo born Pete Teo Penny Tai born Hannah Tan born Jaclyn Victor born Chef Wan Adira Suhaimi Michael Wong born Victor Wong born Dato Michelle Yeoh Hollywood actress born James Wan director of Hollywood films like several Saw films Insidious The Conjuring Fast and Furious born Ziana Zain born Zee Avi Shila Amzah Yunalis Zarai Zamil Idris born Military edit Leftenan Adnan – Warrior from mainland Malaya Antanum Warrior from Sabah Borneo Rentap Warrior from Sarawak Syarif Masahor Warrior from Sarawak Monsopiad Warrior from Sabah Borneo Haji Abdul Rahman Limbong Warrior from Telemong Terengganu Mat Salleh Warrior from Sabah Borneo Rosli Dhobi Warrior from Sarawak Politicians edit Parameswara founder of Sultanate of Malacca Tunku Abdul Rahman Putra Al Haj st Prime Minister of independent Malaya Tun Abdul Razak nd Prime Minister V T Sambanthan Founding Fathers of Malaysia along with Tunku Abdul Rahman and Tan Cheng Lock Tun Dato Sir Tan Cheng Lock Founder of MCA Tun Hussein Onn rd Prime Minister Mahathir Mohammad th Prime Minister Father of Modernisation Abdullah Ahmad Badawi th Prime Minister since Najib Tun Razak Current Prime Minister since Dato Seri Ong Ka Ting Dato Seri Anwar Ibrahim Dato Wan Hisham Wan Salleh Nik Aziz Nik Mat Raja Nong Chik Zainal Abidin Federal Territory and Urban Wellbeing Minister Wan Azizah Wan Ismail Karpal Singh Lim Kit Siang Lim Guan Eng Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah Religious edit Antony Selvanayagam Roman Catholic Bishop of the Diocese of Penang Anthony Soter Fernandez Archbishop Emeritus of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Kuala Lumpur and Bishop Emeritus of the Diocese of Penang Gregory Yong – Second Roman Catholic Archbishop of Singapore Tan Sri Datuk Murphy Nicholas Xavier Pakiam Metropolitan archbishop of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Kuala Lumpur president of the Catholic Bishops Conference of Malaysia Singapore and Brunei and publisher of the Catholic weekly newspaper The Herald Datuk Ng Moon Hing the fourth and current Anglican Bishop of West Malaysia Sportspeople edit Squash edit Datuk Nicol Ann David Ong Beng Hee Azlan Iskandar Low Wee Wern Badminton edit Chan Chong Ming men s doubles Dato Lee Chong Wei Chew Choon Eng men s doubles Wong Choong Hann Chin Eei Hui women s doubles Hafiz Hashim Roslin Hashim Wong Pei Tty women s doubles Choong Tan Fook men s doubles Lee Wan Wah men s doubles Koo Kien Keat men s doubles Tan Boon Heong men s doubles Retired edit Tan Aik Huang Eddy Choong Punch Gunalan Yap Kim Hock Foo Kok Keong Jalani Sidek Misbun Sidek Rashid Sidek Razif Sidek Cheah Soon Kit Lee Wan Wah Football soccer edit Brendan Gan Sydney FC Shaun Maloney Wigan Athletic Akmal Rizal Perak FA Kedah FA RC Strasbourg FCSR Haguenau Norshahrul Idlan Talaha Kelantan FA Khairul Fahmi Che Mat Kelantan FA Mohd Safiq Rahim Selangor FA Mohd Fadzli Saari Selangor FA PBDKT T Team FC SV Wehen Rudie Ramli Selangor FA PKNS F C SV Wehen Mohd Safee Mohd Sali Selangor FA Pelita Jaya Baddrol Bakhtiar Kedah FA Mohd Khyril Muhymeen Zambri Kedah FA Mohd Azmi Muslim Kedah FA Mohd Fadhli Mohd Shas Harimau Muda A FC ViOn Zlaté Moravce Mohd Irfan Fazail Harimau Muda A FC ViOn Zlaté Moravce Wan Zack Haikal Wan Noor Harimau Muda A FC ViOn Zlaté Moravce F C Ryukyu Nazirul Naim Che Hashim Harimau Muda A F C Ryukyu Khairul Izuan Abdullah Sarawak FA Persibo Bojonegoro PDRM FA Stanley Bernard Stephen Samuel Sabah FA Sporting Clube de Goa Nazmi Faiz Harimau Muda A SC Beira Mar Ahmad Fakri Saarani Perlis FA Atlético S C Chun Keng Hong Penang FA Chanthaburi F C Retired edit Serbegeth Singh owner founder of MyTeam Blackburn Rovers F C Global dvisor Mokhtar Dahari former Selangor FA and Malaysian player Lim Teong Kim former Hertha BSC player