the West To adjust the economy Diocletian made several tax reforms Diocletian expelled the Persians who plundered Syria and conquered some barbarian tribes with Maximian He adopted many behaviors of Eastern monarchs like wearing pearls and golden sandals and robes Anyone in presence of the emperor had now to prostrate himself – a common act in the East but never practiced in Rome before Diocletian did not use a disguised form of Republic as the other emperors since Augustus had done Diocletian was also responsible for a significant Christian persecution In he and Galerius started the persecution and ordered the destruction of all the Christian churches and scripts and forbade Christian worship Diocletian abdicated in AD together with Maximian thus he was the first Roman emperor to resign His reign ended the traditional form of imperial rule the Principate from princeps and started the Dominate from Dominus "Master" Constantine and Christianity

Constantine assumed the empire as a tetrarch in He conducted many wars against the other tetrarchs Firstly he defeated Maxentius in In he issued the Edict of Milan which granted liberty for Christians to profess their religion Constantine was converted to Christianity enforcing the Christian faith Therefore he began the Christianization of the Empire and of Europe – a process concluded by the Catholic Church in the Middle Ages The Franks and the Alamanni were defeated by him during – In he defeated another tetrarch Licinius and controlled all the empire as it was before Diocletian To celebrate his victories and Christianity's relevance he rebuilt Byzantium and renamed it Nova Roma "New Rome" but the city soon gained the informal name of Constantinople "City of Constantine" The city served as a new capital for the Empire In fact Rome had lost its central importance since the Crisis of the Third Century –Mediolanum was the capital from to and continued to hold the imperial court of West until the reign of Honorius when Ravenna was made capital in the th century Between and half a dozen new capitals had been established by the members of the Tetrarchy officially or not Antioch Nicomedia Thessalonike Sirmium Milan and Trier Constantine's administrative and monetary reforms reuniting the Empire under one emperor and rebuilding the city of Byzantium changed the high period of the ancient world Germanic and Hunnic invasions of the Roman Empire – AD Fall of the Western Roman Empire Main article Fall of the Western Roman Empire In the late th and th centuries the Western Empire entered a critical stage which terminated with the fall of the Western Roman Empire Under the last of the Constantinians and the Valentinian dynasty Rome lost decisive battles against the Sassanid Empire and Germanic barbarians in emperor Julian the Apostate was killed in the Battle of Samarra against the Persians and the Battle of Adrianople cost the life of emperor Valens – the victorious Goths were never expelled from the Empire nor assimilated Theodosius – gave even more force to the Christian faith after his death the Empire was divided into the Eastern Roman Empire ruled by Arcadius and the Western Roman Empire commanded by Honorius both were Theodosius' sons The situation became more critical in after the death of Stilicho a general who tried to reunite the Empire and repel barbarian invasion in the early years of the th century The professional field army collapsed In the Theodosian dynasty saw the Visigoths sack Rome During the th century the Western Empire saw a significant reduction of its territory The Vandals conquered North Africa the Visigoths claimed Gaul Hispania was taken by the Suebi Britain was abandoned by the central government and the Empire suffered further from the invasions of Attila chief of the Huns General Orestes refused to meet the demands of the barbarian "allies" who now formed the army and tried to expel them from Italy Unhappy with this their chieftain Odoacer defeated and killed Orestes invaded Ravenna and dethroned Romulus Augustus son of Orestes This event happened in and historians usually take it as the mark of the end of Classical Antiquity and beginning of the Middle Ages After some years of independence and nearly years as a great power the rule of Rome in the West ended Various reasons why it ended have been proposed ever since including loss of Republicanism moral decay military tyranny class war slavery economic stagnation environmental change disease the decline of the Roman race as well as the inevitable ebb and flow that all civilizations experience At the time many pagans argued Christianity and the decline of traditional Roman religion were responsible as did some rationalist thinkers of the modern era due to a change from a martial to a more pacifist religion that lessened the size of available soldiers while Christians such as Saint Augustine argued the sinful nature of Roman society itself was to blame The Eastern Empire had a different fate It survived for almost years after the fall of its Western counterpart and became the most stable Christian realm during the Middle Ages During the th century Justinian briefly reconquered Northern Africa and Italy but Byzantine possessions in the West were reduced to southern Italy and Sicily within a few years after Justinian's death In the east partially resulting from the destructive Plague of Justinian the Byzantines were threatened by the rise of Islam whose followers rapidly conquered the territories of Syria Armenia and Egypt during the Byzantine Arab Wars and soon presented a direct threat to Constantinople In the following century the Arabs also captured southern Italy and Sicily Slavic populations were also able to penetrate deep into the Balkans The Byzantines however managed to stop further Islamic expansion into their lands during the th century and beginning in the th century reclaimed parts of the conquered lands In AD the Eastern Empire was at its height Basileios II reconquered Bulgaria and Armenia culture and trade flourished However soon after the expansion was abruptly stopped in with their defeat in the Battle of Manzikert The aftermath of this important battle sent the empire into a protracted period of decline Two decades of internal strife and Turkic invasions ultimately paved the way for Emperor Alexius I Comnenus to send a call for help to the Western European kingdoms in The West responded with the Crusades eventually resulting in the Sack of Constantinople by participants in the Fourth Crusade The conquest of Constantinople in fragmented what remained of the Empire into successor states the ultimate victor being that of Nicaea After the recapture of Constantinople by Imperial forces the Empire was little more than a Greek state confined to the Aegean coast The Byzantine Empire collapsed when Mehmed II conquered Constantinople on May Society The Roman Forum the political economic cultural and religious center of the city during the Republic and later Empire This section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed September The imperial city of Rome was the largest urban center of its time with a population of about one million people about the size of London in the early th century when London was the largest city in the world with a low end estimate of The public spaces in Rome resounded with such a din of hooves and clatter of iron chariot wheels that Julius Caesar had once proposed a ban on chariot traffic during the day Historical estimates show that around percent of the population under jurisdiction of ancient Rome – depending on the standards used in Roman Italy lived in innumerable urban centers with population of and more and several military settlements a very high rate of urbanization by pre industrial standards Most of these centers had a forum temples and other buildings similar to those in Rome Class structure Main articles Social class in ancient Rome and Status in Roman legal system Roman society is largely viewed as hierarchical with slaves servi at the bottom freedmen liberti above them and free born citizens cives at the top Free citizens were also divided by class The broadest and earliest division was between the patricians who could trace their ancestry to one of the Patriarchs at the founding of the city and the plebeians who could not This became less important in the later Republic as some plebeian families became wealthy and entered politics and some patrician families fell on hard times Anyone patrician or plebeian who could count a consul as his ancestor was a noble nobilis a man who was the first of his family to hold the consulship such as Marius or Cicero was known as a novus homo "new man" and ennobled his descendants Patrician ancestry however still conferred considerable prestige and many religious offices remained restricted to patricians A class division originally based on military service became more important Membership of these classes was determined periodically by the Censors according to property The wealthiest were the Senatorial class who dominated politics and command of the army Next came the equestrians equites sometimes translated "knights" originally those who could afford a warhorse who formed a powerful mercantile class Several further classes originally based on what military equipment their members could afford followed with the proletarii citizens who had no property at all at the bottom Before the reforms of Marius they were ineligible for military service and are often described as being just above freed slaves in wealth and prestige Voting power in the Republic was dependent on class Citizens were enrolled in voting "tribes" but the tribes of the richer classes had fewer members than the poorer ones all the proletarii being enrolled in a single tribe Voting was done in class order and stopped as soon as most of the tribes had been reached so the poorer classes were often unable even to cast their votes Women shared some basic rights with their male counterparts but were not fully regarded as citizens and were thus not allowed to vote or take part in politics At the same time the limited rights of women gradually were expanded due to emancipation and women reached freedom from paterfamilias gained property rights and even had more juridical rights than their husbands but still they had no voting rights and were absent from politics Allied foreign cities were often given the Latin Right an intermediary level between full citizens and foreigners peregrini which gave their citizens rights under Roman law and allowed their leading magistrates to become full Roman citizens While there were varying degrees of Latin rights the main division was between those cum suffragio "with vote" enrolled in a Roman tribe and able to take part in the comitia tributa and sine suffragio "without vote" could not take part in Roman politics Some of Rome's Italian allies were given full citizenship after the Social War of – BC and full Roman citizenship was extended to all free born men in the Empire by Caracalla in Family A group portrait depicted on glass dating from c AD showing a mother son and daughter It was once considered a depiction of the family of Valentinian III The basic units of Roman society were households and families Households included the head usually the father of the household pater familias father of the family his wife children and other relatives In the upper classes slaves and servants were also part of the household The power of the head of the household was supreme patria potestas "father's power" over those living with him He could force marriage usually for money and divorce sell his children into slavery claim his dependents' property as his own and even had the right to punish or kill family members though this last right apparently ceased to be exercised after the st century BC Patria potestas even extended over adult sons with their own households A man was not considered a paterfamilias nor could he truly hold property while his own father lived During the early period of Rome's history a daughter when she married fell under the control manus of the paterfamilias of her husband's household although by the late Republic this fell out of fashion as a woman could choose to continue recognizing her father's family as her true family However as Romans reckoned descent through the male line any children she had belonged to her husband's family Little affection was shown for the children of Rome The mother or an elderly relative often raised both boys and girls Unwanted children were often sold as slaves Children might have waited on tables for the family but they could not have participated in the conversation In noble families a Greek nurse usually taught the children Latin and Greek Their father taught the boys how to swim and ride although he sometimes hired a slave to teach them instead At seven a boy began his education Having no school building classes were held on a rooftop if dark the boy had to carry a lantern to school Wax covered boards were used because paper papyrus and parchment were too expensive—or he could just write in the sand A loaf of bread to be eaten was also carried Groups of related households formed a family gens Families were based on blood ties or adoption but were also political and economic alliances Especially during the Roman Republic some powerful families or Gentes Maiores came to dominate political life In ancient Rome marriage was often regarded more as a financial and political alliance than as a romantic association especially in the upper classes see marriage in ancient Rome Fathers usually began seeking husbands for their daughters when these reached an age between twelve and fourteen The husband was usually older than the bride While upper class girls married very young there is evidence that lower class women often married in their late teens or early s Education Main article Roman school In the early Republic there were no public schools so boys were taught to read and write by their parents or by educated slaves called paedagogi usually of Greek origin The primary aim of education during this period was to train young men in agriculture warfare Roman traditions and public affairs Young boys learned much about civic life by accompanying their fathers to religious and political functions including the Senate for the sons of nobles The sons of nobles were apprenticed to a prominent political figure at the age of and campaigned with the army from the age of this system was still in use among some noble families into the imperial era Educational practices were modified after the conquest of the Hellenistic kingdoms in the rd century BC and the resulting Greek influence although it should be noted that Roman educational practices were still much different from Greek ones If their parents could afford it boys and some girls at the age of were sent to a private school outside the home called a ludus where a teacher called a litterator or a magister ludi and often of Greek origin taught them basic reading writing arithmetic and sometimes Greek until the age of Beginning at age students went to secondary schools where the teacher now called a grammaticus taught them about Greek and Roman literature At the age of some students went on to rhetoric school where the teacher usually Greek was called a rhetor Education at this level prepared students for legal careers and required that the students memorize the laws of Rome Pupils went to school every day except religious festivals and market days There were also summer holidays Government Main articles Roman Constitution and History of the Roman Constitution This section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed September Initially Rome was ruled by kings who were elected from each of Rome's major tribes in turn The exact nature of the king's power is uncertain He may have held near absolute power or may also have merely been the chief executive of the Senate and the people At least in military matters the king's authority Imperium was likely absolute He was also the head of the state religion In addition to the authority of the King there were three administrative assemblies the Senate which acted as an advisory body for the King the Comitia Curiata which could endorse and ratify laws suggested by the King and the Comitia Calata which was an assembly of the priestly college that could assemble the people to bear witness to certain acts hear proclamations and declare the feast and holiday schedule for the next month Representation of a sitting of the Roman Senate Cicero attacks Catilina from a th century fresco The class struggles of the Roman Republic resulted in an unusual mixture of democracy and oligarchy The word republic comes from the Latin res publica which literally translates to "public business" Roman laws traditionally could only be passed by a vote of the Popular assembly Comitia Tributa Likewise candidates for public positions had to run for election by the people However the Roman Senate represented an oligarchic institution which acted as an advisory body In the Republic the Senate held actual authority auctoritas but no real legislative power it was technically only an advisory council However as the Senators were individually very influential it was difficult to accomplish anything against the collective will of the Senate New Senators were chosen from among the most accomplished patricians by Censors Censura who could also remove a Senator from his office if he was found "morally corrupt" a charge that could include bribery or as under Cato the Elder embracing one's wife in public Later under the reforms of the dictator Sulla Quaestors were made automatic members of the Senate though most of his reforms did not survive The Republic had no fixed bureaucracy and collected taxes through the practice of tax farming Government positions such as quaestor aedile or praefect were funded from the office holder's private finances To prevent any citizen from gaining too much power new magistrates were elected annually and had to share power with a colleague For example under normal conditions the highest authority was held by two consuls In an emergency a temporary dictator could be appointed Throughout the Republic the administrative system was revised several times to comply with new demands In the end it proved inefficient for controlling the ever expanding dominion of Rome contributing to the establishment of the Roman Empire In the early Empire the pretense of a republican form of government was maintained The Roman Emperor was portrayed as only a princeps or "first citizen" and the Senate gained legislative power and all legal authority previously held by the popular assemblies However the rule of the Emperors became increasingly autocratic and the Senate was reduced to an advisory body appointed by the Emperor The Empire did not inherit a set bureaucracy from the Republic since the Republic did not have any permanent governmental structures apart from the Senate The Emperor appointed assistants and advisers but the state lacked many institutions such as a centrally planned budget Some historians have cited this as a significant reason for the decline of the Roman Empire Further information History of citizenship § Roman conceptions of citizenship Law Main article Roman law The roots of the legal principles and practices of the ancient Romans may be traced to the Law of the Twelve Tables promulgated in BC and to the codification of law issued by order of Emperor Justinian I around AD see Corpus Juris Civilis Roman law as preserved in Justinian's codes continued into the Byzantine Empire and formed the basis of similar codifications in continental Western Europe Roman law continued in a broader sense to be applied throughout most of Europe until the end of the th century The major divisions of the law of ancient Rome as contained within the Justinian and Theodosian law codes consisted of Ius Civile Ius Gentium and Ius Naturale The Ius Civile "Citizen Law" was the body of common laws that applied to Roman citizens The Praetores Urbani sg Praetor Urbanus were the people who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens The Ius Gentium "Law of nations" was the body of common laws that applied to foreigners and their dealings with Roman citizens The Praetores Peregrini sg Praetor Peregrinus were the people who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens and foreigners Ius Naturale encompassed natural law the body of laws that were considered common to all beings Economy Main articles Roman agriculture Roman commerce Roman finance and Roman currency Night view of Trajan's Market built by Apollodorus of Damascus This section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed September Ancient Rome commanded a vast area of land with tremendous natural and human resources As such Rome's economy remained focused on farming and trade Agricultural free trade changed the Italian landscape and by the st century BC vast grape and olive estates had supplanted the yeoman farmers who were unable to match the imported grain price The annexation of Egypt Sicily and Tunisia in North Africa provided a continuous supply of grains In turn olive oil and wine were Italy's main exports Two tier crop rotation was practiced but farm productivity was low around ton per hectare Industrial and manufacturing activities were smaller The largest such activities were the mining and quarrying of stones which provided basic construction materials for the buildings of that period In manufacturing production was on a relatively small scale and generally consisted of workshops and small factories that employed at most dozens of workers However some brick factories employed hundreds of workers The economy of the early Republic was largely based on smallholding and paid labor However foreign wars and conquests made slaves increasingly cheap and plentiful and by the late Republic the economy was largely dependent on slave labor for both skilled and unskilled work Slaves are estimated to have constituted around of the Roman Empire's population at this time and in the city of Rome Only in the Roman Empire when the conquests stopped and the prices of slaves increased did hired labor become more economical than slave ownership Although barter was used in ancient Rome and often used in tax collection Rome had a very developed coinage system with brass bronze and precious metal coins in circulation throughout the Empire and beyond—some have even been discovered in India Before the rd century BC copper was traded by weight measured in unmarked lumps across central Italy The original copper coins as had a face value of one Roman pound of copper but weighed less Thus Roman money's utility as a unit of exchange consistently exceeded its intrinsic value as metal After Nero began debasing the silver denarius its legal value was an estimated one third greater than its intrinsic value Horses were expensive and other pack animals were slower Mass trade on the Roman roads connected military posts where Roman markets were centered These roads were designed for wheels As a result there was transport of commodities between Roman regions but increased with the rise of Roman maritime trade in the nd century BC During that period a trading vessel took less than a month to complete a trip from Gades to Alexandria via Ostia spanning the entire length of the Mediterranean Transport by sea was around times cheaper than by land so the volume for such trips was much larger Some economists like Peter Temin consider the Roman Empire a market economy similar in its degree of capitalistic practices to th century Netherlands and th century England Military Main articles Military history of ancient Rome Roman military Structural history of the Roman military Roman army and Roman navy Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome BC – AD Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Legions Auxiliaries Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaign history Wars and battles Decorations and punishments Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Hadrian's Wall Portal icon Military of ancient Rome portal v t e Modern replica of lorica segmentata type armor used in conjunction with the popular chainmail after the st century AD The early Roman army c BC was like those of other contemporary city states influenced by Greek civilization a citizen militia that practiced hoplite tactics It was small the population of free men of military age was then about and organized in five classes in parallel to the comitia centuriata the body of citizens organized politically with three providing hoplites and two providing light infantry The early Roman army was tactically limited and its stance during this period was essentially defensive By the rd century BC the Romans abandoned the hoplite formation in favor of a more flexible system in which smaller groups of or sometimes men called maniples could maneuver more independently on the battlefield Thirty maniples arranged in three lines with supporting troops constituted a legion totaling between and men The early Republican legion consisted of five sections each of which was equipped differently and had different places in formation the three lines of manipular heavy infantry hastati principes and triarii a force of light infantry velites and the cavalry equites With the new organization came a new orientation toward the offensive and a much more aggressive posture toward adjoining city states At nominal full strength an early Republican legion included to men to heavy infantry several hundred light infantry and several hundred cavalrymen Legions were often significantly understrength from recruitment failures or following periods of active service due to accidents battle casualties disease and desertion During the Civil War Pompey's legions in the east were at full strength because they were recently recruited while Caesar's legions were often well below nominal strength after long active service in Gaul This pattern also held true for auxiliary forces Until the late Republican period the typical legionary was a property owning citizen farmer from a rural area an adsiduus who served for particular often annual campaigns and who supplied his own equipment and in the case of equites his own mount Harris suggests that down to BC the average rural farmer who survived might participate in six or seven campaigns Freedmen and slaves wherever resident and urban citizens did not serve except in rare emergencies After BC economic conditions in rural areas deteriorated as manpower needs increased so that the property qualifications for service were gradually reduced Beginning with Gaius Marius in BC citizens without property and some urban dwelling citizens proletarii were enlisted and provided with equipment although most legionaries continued to come from rural areas Terms of service became continuous and long—up to twenty years if emergencies required it although Brunt argues that six or seven year terms were more typical Beginning in the rd century BC legionaries were paid stipendium amounts are disputed but Caesar famously "doubled" payments to his troops to denarii a year could anticipate booty and donatives distributions of plunder by commanders from successful campaigns and beginning at the time of Marius often were granted allotments of land upon retirement Cavalry and light infantry attached to a legion the auxilia were often recruited in the areas where the legion served Caesar formed a legion the Fifth Alaudae from non citizens in Transalpine Gaul to serve in his campaigns in Gaul By the time of Caesar Augustus the ideal of the citizen soldier had been abandoned and the legions had become fully professional Legionaries received sesterces a year and could expect sesterces on retirement At the end of the Civil War Augustus reorganized Roman military forces discharging soldiers and disbanding legions He retained legions distributed through the provinces of the Empire During the Principate the tactical organization of the Army continued to evolve The auxilia remained independent cohorts and legionary troops often operated as groups of cohorts rather than as full legions A new versatile type of unit the cohortes equitatae – combined cavalry and legionaries in a single formation They could be stationed at garrisons or outposts and could fight on their own as balanced small forces or combine with other similar units as a larger legion sized force This increase in organizational flexibility helped ensure the long term success of Roman military forces The Emperor Gallienus – AD began a reorganization that created the last military structure of the late Empire Withdrawing some legionaries from the fixed bases on the border Gallienus created mobile forces the Comitatenses or field armies and stationed them behind and at some distance from the borders as a strategic reserve The border troops limitanei stationed at fixed bases continued to be the first line of defense The basic unit of the field army was the "regiment" legiones or auxilia for infantry and vexellationes for cavalry Evidence suggests that nominal strengths may have been men for infantry regiments and for cavalry although many records show lower actual troop levels and Many infantry and cavalry regiments operated in pairs under the command of a comes In addition to Roman troops the field armies included regiments of "barbarians" recruited from allied tribes and known as foederati By AD foederati regiments had become permanently established units of the Roman army paid and equipped by the Empire led by a Roman tribune and used just as Roman units were used In addition to the foederati the Empire also used groups of barbarians to fight along with the legions as "allies" without integration into the field armies Under the command of the senior Roman general present they were led at lower levels by their own officers Military leadership evolved over the course of the history of Rome Under the monarchy the hoplite armies were led by the kings of Rome During the early and middle Roman Republic military forces were under the command of one of the two elected consuls for the year During the later Republic members of the Roman Senatorial elite as part of the normal sequence of elected public offices known as the cursus honorum would have served first as quaestor often posted as deputies to field commanders then as praetor Following the end of a term as praetor or consul a Senator might be appointed by the Senate as a propraetor or proconsul depending on the highest office held before to govern a foreign province More junior officers down to but not including the level of centurion were selected by their commanders from their own clientelae or those recommended by political allies among the Senatorial elite Under Augustus whose most important political priority was to place the military under a permanent and unitary command the Emperor was the legal commander of each legion but exercised that command through a legatus legate he appointed from the Senatorial elite In a province with a single legion the legate commanded the legion legatus legionis and also served as provincial governor while in a province with more than one legion each legion was commanded by a legate and the legates were commanded by the provincial governor also a legate but of higher rank During the later stages of the Imperial period beginning perhaps with Diocletian the Augustan model was abandoned Provincial governors were stripped of military authority and command of the armies in a group of provinces was given to generals duces appointed by the Emperor These were no longer members of the Roman elite but men who came up through the ranks and had seen much practical soldiering With increasing frequency these men attempted sometimes successfully to usurp the positions of the Emperors who had appointed them Decreased resources increasing political chaos and civil war eventually left the Western Empire vulnerable to attack and takeover by neighboring barbarian peoples Less is known about the Roman navy than the Roman army Prior to the middle of the rd century BC officials known as duumviri navales commanded a fleet of twenty ships used mainly to control piracy This fleet was given up in AD and replaced by allied forces The First Punic War required that Rome build large fleets and it did so largely with the assistance of and financing from allies This reliance on allies continued to the end of the Roman Republic The quinquereme was the main warship on both sides of the Punic Wars and remained the mainstay of Roman naval forces until replaced by the time of Caesar Augustus by lighter and more maneuverable vessels As compared with a trireme the quinquereme permitted the use of a mix of experienced and inexperienced crewmen an advantage for a primarily land based power and its lesser maneuverability permitted the Romans to adopt and perfect boarding tactics using a troop of about marines in lieu of the ram Ships were commanded by a navarch a rank equal to a centurion who was usually not a citizen Potter suggests that because the fleet was dominated by non Romans the navy was considered non Roman and allowed to atrophy in times of peace Information suggests that by the time of the late Empire AD the Roman navy comprised several fleets including warships and merchant vessels for transportation and supply Warships were oared sailing galleys with three to five banks of oarsmen Fleet bases included such ports as Ravenna Arles Aquilea Misenum and the mouth of the Somme River in the West and Alexandria and Rhodes in the East Flotillas of small river craft classes were part of the limitanei border troops during this period based at fortified river harbors along the Rhine and the Danube That prominent generals commanded both armies and fleets suggests that naval forces were treated as auxiliaries to the army and not as an independent service The details of command structure and fleet strengths during this period are not well known although fleets were commanded by prefects Culture Main article Culture of ancient Rome The seven hills of Rome Life in ancient Rome revolved around the city of Rome located on seven hills The city had a vast number of monumental structures like the Colosseum the Forum of Trajan and the Pantheon It had theatres gymnasiums marketplaces functional sewers bath complexes complete with libraries and shops and fountains with fresh drinking water supplied by hundreds of miles of aqueducts Throughout the territory under the control of ancient Rome residential architecture ranged from modest houses to country villas In the capital city of Rome there were imperial residences on the elegant Palatine Hill from which the word palace derives The low Plebeian and middle Equestrian classes lived in the city center packed into apartments or Insulae which were almost like modern ghettos These areas often built by upper class property owners to rent were often centred upon collegia or taberna These people provided with a free supply of grain and entertained by gladatorial games were enrolled as clients of patrons among the upper class Patricians whose assistance they sought and whose interests they upheld Language Main article Latin The native language of the Romans was Latin an Italic language the grammar of which relies little on word order conveying meaning through a system of affixes attached to word stems Its alphabet was based on the Etruscan alphabet which was in turn based on the Greek alphabet Although surviving Latin literature consists almost entirely of Classical Latin an artificial and highly stylized and polished literary language from the st century BC the spoken language of the Roman Empire was Vulgar Latin which significantly differed from Classical Latin in grammar and vocabulary and eventually in pronunciation While Latin remained the main written language of the Roman Empire Greek came to be the language spoken by the well educated elite as most of the literature studied by Romans was written in Greek In the eastern half of the Roman Empire which later became the Byzantine Empire Latin was never able to replace Greek and after the death of Justinian Greek became the official language of the Byzantine government The expansion of the Roman Empire spread Latin throughout Europe and Vulgar Latin evolved into dialects in different locations gradually shifting into many distinct Romance languages Religion Main articles Religion in ancient Rome and Roman mythology Archaic Roman religion at least concerning the gods was made up not of written narratives but rather of complex interrelations between gods and humans Unlike in Greek mythology the gods were not personified but were vaguely defined sacred spirits called numina Romans also believed that every person place or thing had its own genius or divine soul During the Roman Republic Roman religion was organized Reign Accession and coronation Elizabeth in crown and robes next to her husband in military uniform Coronation portrait of Queen Elizabeth II and the Duke of Edinburgh, June 1953 Coronation of Elizabeth II Main article: Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II During 1951, George VI's health declined and Elizabeth frequently stood in for him at public events. When she toured Canada and visited President Harry S. Truman in Washington, D.C., in October 1951, her private secretary, Martin Charteris, carried a draft accession declaration in case the King died while she was on tour.[55] In early 1952, Elizabeth and Philip set out for a tour of Australia and New Zealand by way of Kenya. On 6 February 1952, they had just returned to their Kenyan home, Sagana Lodge, after a night spent at Treetops Hotel, when word arrived of the death of the King and consequently Elizabeth's immediate accession to the throne. Philip broke the news to the new Queen.[56] Martin Charteris asked her to choose a regnal name; she chose to remain Elizabeth, "of course".[57] She was proclaimed queen throughout her realms and the royal party hastily returned to the United Kingdom.[58] She and the Duke of Edinburgh moved into Buckingham Palace.[59] With Elizabeth's accession, it seemed probable that the royal house would bear her husband's name, becoming the House of Mountbatten, in line with the custom of a wife taking her husband's surname on marriage. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Elizabeth's grandmother, Queen Mary, favoured the retention of the House of Windsor, and so on 9 April 1952 Elizabeth issued a declaration that Windsor would continue to be the name of the royal house. The Duke complained, "I am the only man in the country not allowed to give his name to his own children."[60] In 1960, after the death of Queen Mary in 1953 and the resignation of Churchill in 1955, the surname Mountbatten-Windsor was adopted for Philip and Elizabeth's male-line descendants who do not carry royal titles.[61] Amid preparations for the coronation, Princess Margaret informed her sister that she wished to marry Peter Townsend, a divorcé‚ 16 years Margaret's senior, with two sons from his previous marriage. The Queen asked them to wait for a year; in the words of Martin Charteris, "the Queen was naturally sympathetic towards the Princess, but I think she thought—she hoped—given time, the affair would peter out."[62] Senior politicians were against the match and the Church of England did not permit remarriage after divorce. If Margaret had contracted a civil marriage, she would have been expected to renounce her right of succession.[63] Eventually, she decided to abandon her plans with Townsend.[64] In 1960, she married Antony Armstrong-Jones, who was created Earl of Snowdon the following year. They were divorced in 1978; she did not remarry.[65] Despite the death of Queen Mary on 24 March, the coronation on 2 June 1953 went ahead as planned, as Mary had asked before she died.[66] The ceremony in Westminster Abbey, with the exception of the anointing and communion, was televised for the first time.[67][d] Elizabeth's coronation gown was embroidered on her instructions with the floral emblems of Commonwealth countries:[71] English Tudor rose; Scots thistle; Welsh leek; Irish shamrock; Australian wattle; Canadian maple leaf; New Zealand silver fern; South African protea; lotus flowers for India and Ceylon; and Pakistan's wheat, cotton, and jute.[72] Continuing evolution of the Commonwealth Further information: Historical development of the Commonwealth realms, from the Queen's accession The Commonwealth realms (pink) and their territories and protectorates (red) at the beginning of Elizabeth II's reign A formal group of Elizabeth in tiara and evening dress with eleven politicians in evening dress or national costume. Elizabeth II and Commonwealth leaders at the 1960 Commonwealth Conference, Windsor Castle From Elizabeth's birth onwards, the British Empire continued its transformation into the Commonwealth of Nations.[73] By the time of her accession in 1952, her role as head of multiple independent states was already established.[74] Spanning 1953–54, the Queen and her husband embarked on a six-month around-the-world tour. She became the first reigning monarch of Australia and New Zealand to visit those nations.[75] During the tour, crowds were immense; three-quarters of the population of Australia were estimated to have seen her.[76] Throughout her reign, the Queen has undertaken state visits to foreign countries and tours of Commonwealth ones and she is the most widely travelled head of state.[77] In 1956, French Prime Minister Guy Mollet and British Prime Minister Sir Anthony Eden discussed the possibility of France joining the Commonwealth. The proposal was never accepted and the following year France signed the Treaty of Rome, which established the European Economic Community, the precursor of the European Union.[78] In November 1956, Britain and France invaded Egypt in an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to capture the Suez Canal. Lord Mountbatten claimed the Queen was opposed to the invasion, though Eden denied it. Eden resigned two months later.[79] The absence of a formal mechanism within the Conservative Party for choosing a leader meant that, following Eden's resignation, it fell to the Queen to decide whom to commission to form a government. Eden recommended that she consult Lord Salisbury, the Lord President of the Council. Lord Salisbury and Lord Kilmuir, the Lord Chancellor, consulted the British Cabinet, Winston Churchill, and the Chairman of the backbench 1922 Committee, resulting in the Queen appointing their recommended candidate: Harold Macmillan.[80] The Suez crisis and the choice of Eden's successor led in 1957 to the first major personal criticism of the Queen. In a magazine, which he owned and edited,[81] Lord Altrincham accused her of being "out of touch".[82] Altrincham was denounced by public figures and slapped by a member of the public appalled by his comments.[83] Aleksejs Širovs born – chess player Andris Škele born – politician Prime Minister of Latvia Armands Škele – basketball player Ksenia Solo born – actress Ernests Štalbergs – – architect ensemble of the Freedom Monument Izaks Nahmans Šteinbergs – – politician lawyer and author Maris Štrombergs – BMX cyclist gold medal winner at and Olympics T edit Esther Takeuchi born – materials scientist and chemical engineer Mihails Tals – – the th World Chess Champion Janis Roberts Tilbergs – – painter sculptor U edit Guntis Ulmanis born – president of Latvia Karlis Ulmanis – – prime minister and president of Latvia


abby-lane abby-rode abigail-clayton ada-tauler addie-juniper addison-cain adele-wiesenthal adeline-lange adeline-pollicina adriana-amante adrianna-laurenti adrianna-russo agnes agnes-ardant agnes-zalontai aimee-addison aisha-sun aja aleena-ferari alessandra-schiavo aletta-ocean alexandra-nice alexandria-cass alexa-parks alex-dane alex-foxe alexia-knight alexis-devell alexis-firestone alexis-greco alexis-payne alexis-x alex-storm alex-white aliana-love alice-springs alicia-alighatti alicia-monet alicia-rio alicyn-sterling alighiera-olena ali-moore aline-santos alissa-ashley allysin-chaynes alysin-embers alyssa-love alyssa-reece amanda-addams amanda-blake amanda-blue amanda-jane-adams amanda-rae amanda-stone amanda-tyler amber-hunt amberlina-lynn amber-lynn amber-michaels amber-peach amber-wild amber-woods ambrosia-fox amia-miley ami-rodgers amy-allison amy-brooke amy-rose amy-starz anastasia-christ anastasia-sands andrea-adams andrea-brittian andrea-lange andrea-true andy angel angela-baron angela-summers angel-barrett angel-cash angel-cruz angel-cummings angel-ducharme angelica-sin angelika-reschner angelina-brasini angelina-korrs angelina-valentine angel-kelly angel-long angel-west angie-knight anita-andic anita-blond anita-cannibal anita-dark anna-belle anna-malle anna-nikova anna-pierce anna-ventura anna-veruska anne-bie-warburg anne-libert anne-magle anne-sand annette-haven annie-sprinkle ann-kiray ann-marie-michelle antonia-dorian april-flowers april-may april-west arcadia-lake ariana-bali ariana-jollee arlana-blue ashley-anne ashley-brooks ashley-coda ashley-fires ashley-lauren ashley-long ashley-marie ashley-nicole ashley-perk ashley-renee ashley-robbins ashley-welles ashley-wells ashley-winger ashlyn-gere astrid-bone athena-star aubrey-nichols aurora aurora-snow autumn-bliss autumn-rayne ava-devine ava-lauren avalon ava-marteens avy-lee-roth bailey-monroe bambi-allen barbara-bourbon barbara-boutet barbara-dare barbara-doll barbara-moose barbarella barbie-angel barbie-doll barett-moore bea-fiedler beata beatrice-poggi beatrice-valle becky-savage becky-sunshine belinda-butterfield bella-donna bethany-sweet beverly-bliss beverly-glen biggi-stenzhorn bionca black-widow blond-cat blondi blue-angel bobbi-bliss bobbi-dean bobbie-burns bonnie-holiday brandee brandi-edwards brandy-alexandre brandy-dean brandy-lee brandy-smile brandy-wine bree-anthony breezy-lane brenda-basse briana-blair bridgette-belle bridgette-monet bridgette-monroe bridget-waters brigitte-lahaie brigitte-monnin brigitte-verbecq brittany brittany-stryker britt-corvin britt-morgan bronze brooke-bennett brooke-fields brooke-haven brooke-west brook-van-buuren buffy-davis bunnie-blake bunny-bleu bunny-hatton busty-belle cali-caramel calisyn-heart cameo cameron-love camila-sampaio camilla-rhodes camille-morgan camrie-foxxx candace-daley candi candida-royalle candie-evens candi-summers candy-apples candy-barr candy-hill candy-samples candy-stanton cara-lott caressa-savage carmel-nougat carmen-blonde carmen-de-la-torre carmen-moore carmen-rose carol-connors carol-cross carol-cummings carole-dubois carole-gire carole-pierac carol-titian carolyn-connoly carolyn-monroe carrie-cruise cassandra-leigh cassidy cassie-courtland cataline-bullock catherine-count catherine-crystal catherine-ringer catherine-tailleferre cathy-delorme cathy-menard cathy-stewart celeste-fox celine-gallone chanel-preston chanel-price chantal-virapin chanta-rose chantelle-stevens charisma charisma-cole charlie-latour charlie-waters charlotte-de-castille charmane-star chasey-lain chayse-manhattan chaz-vincent chelsea-sinclaire chennin-blanc cheri-janvier cheri-taylor cherry-hill chessie-moore cheyenne-hunter cheyenne-silver china-lee china-leigh china-moon chloe-cruize chloe-dior chloe-kez chloe-stevens chris-collins chris-jordan chris-petersen chrissie-beauchamp christa-abel christa-ludwig christie-ford christi-lake christina-berg christina-blond christina-evol christina-skye christine-black christine-chavert christine-neona christine-rigoler christy-canyon cicciolina cindi-stephens cindy-carver cindy-crawford cindy-more cindy-shepard cindy-wong cinthya-marinho clair-dia claire-robbins claude-janna claudia-jackson claudia-jamsson claudia-mehringer claudia-nero claudia-van-statt claudia-zante claudine-beccarie clea-carson cleo-nichole cleo-patra cody-lane cody-love cody-nicole coffee-brown colleen-brennan connie-bennett connie-peterson constance-money copper-penny coreena corey-everson corinne-lemoine corneliah cory-everson cory-wolf courtney courtney-cummz courtney-james cris-cassidy crissy-moran cris-taliana crystal-breeze crystal-dawn crystal-holland crystal-knight crystal-lake crystal-lovin crystal-sync csilla-kalnay cuban-bee cynara-fox cyndee-summers cynthia-black cynthia-brooks cynthia-hammers cynthia-lavigne dagmar-lost daisy-layne dallas-miko dana-dylan dana-lynn danica-rhea daniela-nanou daniela-schiffer daniele-troeger daniella daniella-schiffer danielle danielle-foxxx danielle-rodgers danny-ricci danyel-cheeks daphne daphne-rosen darby-lloyd-rains darla-crane darla-delovely davia-ardell dayton-rain debbie-northrup debbie-revenge debbie-van-gils debi-diamond debi-jointed debra-lynn deidra-hopkins deidre-holland delania-raffino delia-moore delphine-thail delta-force delta-white demi-moor denice-klarskov denise-derringer denise-dior denise-sloan desiree-cousteau desiree-foxx desiree-lane desiree-west deva-station devin-devasquez devinn-lane devon-shire dia diana-holt diana-kisabonyi diana-siefert diana-stevenson diane-dubois diane-richards diane-sloan diane-suresne dido-angel dillan-lauren dina-deville dina-jewel dina-pearl ditty-blue diva divinity-love djiana dolly-darkley dominique dominique-dewitt dominique-saint-claire donna-hart donna-marie dorle-buchner dorothy-lemay dorothy-onan drea drimla dru-berrymore dusty-rose dyanna-lauren ebony-ayes edina-blond edita-ungerova edwige-faillel eileen-wells elaine-southern elena-berkova elena-maria-ricci eleonore-melzer elisabeth-bure elis-black elise elise-di-medici elle-devyne elle-rio elodie-delage elsa-maroussia elza-brown emili-doll emily-evermoore emily-george emily-jewel emmanuelle-pareze envy-mi erica-boyer erica-eaton erica-havens erica-idol erica-lauren erika-bella erika-cool erika-heaven erika-lockett esme-monroe eva-allen eva-angel eva-dionisio eva-gross eva-kleber eva-lux eva-uettori eve-laurence evelyne-lang evie-delatosso fabiana-venturi faith-stevens fallon fanny-garreau fanny-steel faye-runaway flame flick-shagwell flore-soller flower france-lomay france-quenie francoise frankie-leigh gabriella gabriella-mirelba gabriella-vincze gail-force gail-palmer gail-sterling georgette-saunders georgia-peach georgina-spelvin gia-givanna gianna-lynn gili-sky gina-carrera gina-gianetti gina-janssen gina-lee gina-martell gina-valentino ginger-jay ginger-lee ginger-lynn ginny-noack giovanna gisela-schwarz giselle-monet gladys-laroche gloria-leonard gloria-todd golden-jade greta-carlson greta-milos guia-lauri-filzi gwenda-farnel hare-krane harley-raine hayley-jade hazel-young heather-deeley heather-ellis heather-hart heather-lere heather-lyn heather-manfield heather-thomas heather-torrance heather-wayne heather-young helen-madigan helen-thomas helga-sven helga-wild hillary-summers holly-hollywood holly-joy holly-page holly-ryder honey-winter hottie-hollie hyapatia-lee ida-fabry ildiko-smits illana-moor ines-ridere ingrid-choray isabella-dior isabella-soprano isabelle-allay isabelle-brell isabelle-marchall isobel-wren iveta ivette-blanche jackie-right jacqueline-lorians jacy-allen jada-stevens jade-east jade-hsu jade-marcela jade-summers jade-wong jahn-gold jamie-brooks jamie-james jamie-summers jana-irrova jana-mrazkova jane-baker jane-darling jane-iwanoff jane-lindsay jane-lixx janet-jacme janey-robbins jasmine-delatori jayden-simone jaylyn-rose jayna-woods jazella-moore jazmin-luna-gold jean-afrique jeanette-littledove jeanie-marie-sullivan jean-jennings jeanna-fine jeannie-pepper jenna-jameson jenna-jane jenna-presley jenna-wells jennifer-haussmann jennifer-janes jennifer-jordan jennifer-morante jennifer-noxt jennifer-stewart jennifer-welles jennifer-west jenny jenny-feeling jenny-fields jenny-wings jersey-jaxin jesie-st-james jesse-capelli jessica-bangkok jessica-bogart jessica-darlin jessica-fiorentino jessica-gabriel jessica-laine jessica-may jessica-road jessica-wylde jessi-foster jill-ferari jill-kelly joana-redgrave joan-devlon joanna-storm joanna-sweet jody-maxwell joelle-lequement joelle-petinot johnni-black jordana-james jordan-green jordan-nevaeh jordan-star josephine-carrington joslyn-james julia-chanel julia-dal-fuoco juliana-grandi julia-paes julia-parton julia-perrin julia-swen julia-thomas julie-meadows julie-rage julie-simone juliet-anderson juliet-graham juliette-carelton kacey-jordan kagney-linn-karter kaitlyn-ashley kalena-rios kami-andrews kamila-smith kandee-licks kandi-barbour kapri-styles kara-nox karen-summer kari-foxx karine-gambier karin-schubert karli-sweet karmen-kennedy karol-castro kascha kassi-nova kat kate-frost kate-jones kathia-nobili kathleen-gentry kathleen-white kathy-divan kathy-harcourt kathy-heart kathy-kash katie-cummings katja-love kat-langer katrina-isis katrina-kraven katy-borman katy-caro kaycee-dean kayla-kupcakes kay-parker k-c-valentine keama-kim keira-moon keisha keli-richards kelli-tyler kelly-adams kelly-blue kelly-broox kelly-hearn kelly-kay kelly-kline kelly-nichols kelly-royce kelly-skyline kendra-kay kenzi-marie keri-windsor ketthy-divan kianna-dior kiley-heart kim-alexis kimber-blake kimberly-carson kimberly-kane kimberly-kyle kim-de-place kim-holland kimi-gee kimkim-de kim-kitaine kimmie-lee kimmy-nipples kina-kara kira-eggers kira-red kirsty-waay kitty-langdon kitty-lynxxx kitty-marie kitty-shayne kitty-yung kora-cummings kris-lara krista-lane krista-maze kristara-barrington kristarah-knight kristi-klenot kristina-blonde kristina-king kristina-klevits kristina-soderszk kristine-heller kristin-steen krisztina-ventura krystal-de-boor krystal-steal kylee-karr kylee-nash kylie-brooks kylie-channel kylie-haze kylie-wylde kym-wilde kyoto-sun lachelle-marie lacy-rose lady-amanda-wyldefyre lady-stephanie laetitia-bisset lana-burner lana-cox lana-wood lara-amour lara-roxx lara-stevens lataya-roxx latoya laura-clair laura-lazare laura-lion laura-may laura-orsolya laura-paouck laura-zanzibar lauren-black laurence-boutin lauren-montgomery laurien-dominique laurien-wilde laurie-smith lauryl-canyon lauryn-may leah-wilde lea-magic lea-martini leanna-foxxx lee-caroll leigh-livingston leilani lenora-bruce leslie-winston lesllie-bovee letizia-bruni lexi-lane lexi-matthews lezley-zen lia-fire liliane-gray liliane-lemieuvre lili-marlene lily-gilder lily-labeau lily-rodgers lily-valentine linda-shaw linda-vale linda-wong linnea-quigley lisa-bright lisa-de-leeuw lisa-k-loring lisa-lake lisa-melendez lisa-sue-corey lise-pinson little-oral-annie liza-dwyer liza-harper lizzy-borden logan-labrent lois-ayres lola-cait long-jean-silver loni-bunny loni-sanders loona-luxx lorelei-lee lorelei-rand lorena-sanchez lori-alexia lori-blue lorrie-lovett luci-diamond lucie-doll lucie-theodorova lucy-van-dam lydia-baum lynn-franciss lynn-lemay lynn-ray lynn-stevens lynx-canon lysa-thatcher madelina-ray madison-parker magdalena-lynn maggie-randall mai-lin mandi-wine mandy-bright mandy-malone mandy-may mandy-mistery mandy-starr marcia-minor maren margit-ojetz margitta-hofer margo-stevens margot-mahler mariah-cherry marianne-aubert maria-tortuga marie-anne marie-christine-chireix marie-christine-veroda marie-claude-moreau marie-dominique-cabannes marie-france-morel marie-luise-lusewitz marie-sharp marilyn-chambers marilyne-leroy marilyn-gee marilyn-jess marilyn-martyn marilyn-star marina-hedman marion-webb marita-ekberg marita-kemper marlena marlene-willoughby marry-queen martine-grimaud martine-schultz maryanne-fisher mary-hubay mary-ramunno mary-stuart mascha-mouton maud-kennedy mauvais-denoir maxine-tyler maya-black maya-france megan-leigh megan-martinez megan-reece mei-ling melanie-hotlips melanie-scott melba-cruz melinda-russell melissa-bonsardo melissa-del-prado melissa-golden melissa-martinez melissa-melendez melissa-monet mercedes-dragon mercedes-lynn merle-michaels mesha-lynn mia-beck mia-lina mia-smiles michele-raven michelle-aston michelle-ferrari michelle-greco michelle-maren michelle-maylene michelle-monroe micki-lynn mika-barthel mika-tan mikki-taylor mimi-morgan mindy-rae ming-toy miranda-stevens miss-bunny miss-meadow miss-pomodoro missy missy-graham missy-stone missy-vega misti-jane mistress-candice misty-anderson misty-dawn misty-rain misty-regan mona-lisa mona-page moni monica-baal monica-swinn monika-peta monika-sandmayr monika-unco monique-bruno monique-cardin monique-charell monique-demoan monique-gabrielle monique-la-belle morgan-fairlane morrigan-hel 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pascale-vital pat-manning pat-rhea patricia-dale patricia-diamond patricia-kennedy patricia-rhomberg patrizia-predan patti-cakes patti-petite paula-brasile paula-harlow paula-morton paula-price paula-winters pauline-teutscher penelope-pumpkins penelope-valentin petra-hermanova petra-lamas peyton-lafferty phaedra-grant pia-snow piper-fawn pipi-anderson porsche-lynn porsha-carrera precious-silver priscillia-lenn purple-passion queeny-love rachel-ashley rachel-love rachel-luv rachel-roxxx rachel-ryan rachel-ryder racquel-darrian rane-revere raven reagan-maddux rebecca-bardoux regan-anthony regine-bardot regula-mertens reina-leone reka-gabor renae-cruz renee-foxx renee-lovins renee-morgan renee-perez renee-summers renee-tiffany rhonda-jo-petty rikki-blake riley-ray rio-mariah rita-ricardo roberta-gemma roberta-pedon robin-byrd robin-cannes robin-everett robin-sane rochell-starr rosa-lee-kimball rosemarie roxanne-blaze roxanne-hall roxanne-rollan ruby-richards sabina-k sabre 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shyla-foxxx shy-love sierra-sinn sierra-skye sigrun-theil silver-starr silvia-bella silvia-saint silvie-de-lux silvy-taylor simone-west sindee-coxx sindy-lange sindy-shy siobhan-hunter skylar-knight skylar-price skyler-dupree smokie-flame smoking-mary-jane solange-shannon sonya-summers sophia-santi sophie-call sophie-duflot sophie-evans sophie-guers stacey-donovan stacy-lords stacy-moran stacy-nichols stacy-silver stacy-thorn starla-fox starr-wood stefania-bruni stella-virgin stephanie-duvalle stephanie-rage stephanie-renee stevie-taylor summer-knight summer-rose sunny-day sunset-thomas sunshine-seiber susan-hart susanne-brend susan-nero susi-hotkiss suzanne-mcbain suzan-nielsen suzie-bartlett suzie-carina suzi-sparks sweet-nice sweety-pie sybille-rossani sylvia-benedict sylvia-bourdon sylvia-brand sylvia-engelmann syreeta-taylor syren-de-mer syvette szabina-black szilvia-lauren tai-ellis taija-rae taisa-banx talia-james tamara-lee tamara-longley tamara-n-joy tamara-west tami-white tammy tammy-lee tammy-reynolds tania-lorenzo tantala-ray tanya-danielle tanya-fox tanya-foxx tanya-lawson tanya-valis tara-aire tasha-voux tatjana-belousova tatjana-skomorokhova tawnee-lee tawny-pearl tayla-rox taylor-wane teddi-austin teddi-barrett tera-bond tera-heart tera-joy teresa-may teresa-orlowski teri-diver teri-weigel terri-dolan terri-hall tess-ferre tess-newheart thais-vieira tia-cherry tianna tiara tiffany-blake tiffany-clark tiffany-duponte tiffany-rayne tiffany-rousso tiffany-storm tiffany-towers tiffany-tyler tiger-lily tigr timea-vagvoelgyi tina-blair tina-burner tina-evil tina-gabriel tina-loren tina-marie tina-russell tish-ambrose tommi-rose tonisha-mills topsy-curvey tori-secrets tori-sinclair tori-welles tracey-adams traci-lords traci-topps traci-winn tracy-duzit tracy-love tracy-williams tricia-devereaux tricia-yen trinity-loren trisha-rey trista-post trixie-tyler ultramax ursula-gaussmann ursula-moore uschi-karnat valentina valerie-leveau valery-hilton vanessa-chase vanessa-del-rio vanessa-michaels vanessa-ozdanic vanilla-deville velvet-summers veri-knotty veronica-dol veronica-hart veronica-hill veronica-rayne veronica-sage veronika-vanoza via-paxton vicky-lindsay vicky-vicci victoria-evans victoria-gold victoria-knight victoria-luna victoria-paris victoria-slick victoria-zdrok viper virginie-caprice vivian-valentine vivien-martines wendi-white wendy-divine whitney-banks whitney-fears whitney-wonders wonder-tracey wow-nikki xanthia-berstein yasmine-fitzgerald yelena-shieffer yvonne-green zara-whites zsanett-egerhazi zuzie-boobies

under a strict system of priestly offices which were held by men of senatorial rank The College of Pontifices was uppermost body in this hierarchy and its chief priest the Pontifex Maximus was the head of the state religion Flamens took care of the cults of various gods while augurs were trusted with taking the auspices The sacred king took on the religious responsibilities of the deposed kings In the Roman Empire emperors were deified and the formalized imperial cult became increasingly prominent As contact with the Greeks increased the old Roman gods became increasingly associated with Greek gods Thus Jupiter was perceived to be the same deity as Zeus Mars became associated with Ares and Neptune with Poseidon The Roman gods also assumed the attributes and mythologies of these Greek gods Under the Empire the Romans absorbed the mythologies of their conquered subjects often leading to situations in which the temples and priests of traditional Italian deities existed side by side with those of foreign gods Beginning with Emperor Nero in the st century AD Roman official policy towards Christianity was negative and at some points simply being a Christian could be punishable by death Under Emperor Diocletian the persecution of Christians reached its peak However it became an officially supported religion in the Roman state under Diocletian's successor Constantine I with the signing of the Edict of Milan in and quickly became dominant All religions except Christianity were prohibited in AD by an edict of Emperor Theodosius I Art music and literature Main articles Roman art Latin literature Music of ancient Rome Roman sculpture and Theatre of ancient Rome Woman playing a kithara Roman painting styles show Greek influences and surviving examples are primarily frescoes used to adorn the walls and ceilings of country villas though Roman literature includes mentions of paintings on wood ivory and other materials Several examples of Roman painting have been found at Pompeii and from these art historians divide the history of Roman painting into four periods The first style of Roman painting was practiced from the early nd century BC to the early or mid st century BC It was mainly composed of imitations of marble and masonry though sometimes including depictions of mythological characters The second style of Roman painting began during the early st century BC and attempted to depict realistically three dimensional architectural features and landscapes The third style occurred during the reign of Augustus BC – AD and rejected the realism of the second style in favor of simple ornamentation A small architectural scene landscape or abstract design was placed in the center with a monochrome background The fourth style which began in the st century AD depicted scenes from mythology while retaining architectural details and abstract patterns Portrait sculpture during the period which utilized youthful and classical proportions evolving later into a mixture of realism and idealism During the Antonine and Severan periods ornate hair and bearding with deep cutting and drilling became popular Advancements were also made in relief sculptures usually depicting Roman victories Latin literature was from its start influenced heavily by Greek authors Some of the earliest extant works are of historical epics telling the early military history of Rome As the Republic expanded authors began to produce poetry comedy history and tragedy Roman music was largely based on Greek music and played an important part in many aspects of Roman life In the Roman military musical instruments such as the tuba a long trumpet or the cornu similar to a French horn were used to give various commands while the bucina possibly a trumpet or horn and the lituus probably an elongated J shaped instrument were used in ceremonial capacities Music was used in the amphitheaters between fights and in the odea and in these settings is known to have featured the cornu and the hydraulis a type of water organ Most religious rituals featured musical performances with tibiae double pipes at sacrifices cymbals and Tambourines at orgiastic cults and rattles and hymns across the spectrum Some music historians believe that music was used at almost all public ceremonies Music historians are not certain if Roman musicians made a significant contribution to the theory or practice of music The graffiti brothels paintings and sculptures found in Pompeii and Herculaneum suggest that the Romans had a sex saturated culture Cuisine Main article Ancient Roman cuisine This section does not cite any references sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed September icon This section requires expansion September Ancient Roman cuisine changed over the long duration of this ancient civilization Dietary habits were affected by the influence of Greek culture the political changes from kingdom to republic to empire and empire's enormous expansion which exposed Romans to many new provincial culinary habits and cooking techniques In the beginning the differences between social classes were relatively small but disparities evolved with the empire's growth Games and recreation This section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed September The youth of Rome had several forms of athletic play and exercise such as jumping wrestling boxing and racing In the countryside pastimes for the wealthy also included fishing and hunting The Romans also had several forms of ball playing including one resembling handball Dice games board games and gamble games were popular pastimes Women did not take part in these activities For the wealthy dinner parties presented an opportunity for entertainment sometimes featuring music dancing and poetry readings Plebeians sometimes enjoyed similar parties through clubs or associations but for most Romans recreational dining usually meant patronizing taverns Children entertained themselves with toys and such games as leapfrog Public games were sponsored by leading Romans who wished to advertise their generosity and court popular approval in the Imperial era this usually meant the emperor Several venues were developed specifically for public games The Colisseum was built in the Imperial era to host among other events gladiatorial combats These combats had begun as funeral games around the th century BC and became popular spectator events in the late Republic and Empire Gladiators had an exotic and inventive variety of arms and armour They sometimes fought to the death but more often to an adjudicated victory dependent on a referee's decision The outcome was usually in keeping with the mood of the watching crowd Shows of exotic animals were popular in their own right but sometimes animals were pitted against human beings either armed professionals or unarmed criminals who had been condemned to a spectacular and theatrical public death in the arena Some of these encounters were based on episodes from Roman or Greek mythology Chariot racing was extremely popular among all classes In Rome these races were usually held at the Circus Maximus which had been purpose built for chariot and horse racing and as Rome's largest public place was also used for festivals and animal shows It could seat around people The charioteers raced in teams identified by their colours The track was divided lengthwise by a barrier that contained obelisks temples statues and lap counters The best seats were at the track side close to the action they were reserved for Senators Behind them sat the equites knights and behind the knights were the plebs commoners and non citizens The donor of the games sat on a high platform in the stands alongside images of the gods visible to all Large sums were bet on the outcomes of races Some Romans offered prayers and sacrifices on behalf of their favourites or laid curses on the opposing teams and some aficionados were members of extremely even violently partisan circus factions Technology Main article Roman technology This section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed September Pont du Gard in France is a Roman aqueduct built in c BC It is a World Heritage Site Ancient Rome boasted impressive technological feats using many advancements that were lost in the Middle Ages and not rivaled again until the th and th centuries An example of this is Insulated glazing which was not invented again until the s Many practical Roman innovations were adopted from earlier Greek designs Advancements were often divided and based on craft Artisans guarded technologies as trade secrets Roman civil engineering and military engineering constituted a large part of Rome's technological superiority and legacy and contributed to the construction of hundreds of roads bridges aqueducts baths theaters and arenas Many monuments such as the Colosseum Pont du Gard and Pantheon remain as testaments to Roman engineering and culture The Romans were renowned for their architecture which is grouped with Greek traditions into "Classical architecture" Although there were many differences from Greek architecture Rome borrowed heavily from Greece in adhering to strict formulaic building designs and proportions Aside from two new orders of columns composite and Tuscan and from the dome which was derived from the Etruscan arch Rome had relatively few architectural innovations until the end of the Republic The Appian Way Via Appia a road connecting the city of Rome to the southern parts of Italy remains usable even today In the st century BC Romans started to use concrete widely Concrete was invented in the late rd century BC It was a powerful cement derived from pozzolana and soon supplanted marble as the chief Roman building material and allowed many daring architectural forms Also in the st century BC Vitruvius wrote De architectura possibly the first complete treatise on architecture in history In late st century BC Rome also began to use glassblowing soon after its invention in Syria about BC Mosaics took the Empire by storm after samples were retrieved during Lucius Cornelius Sulla's campaigns in Greece Concrete made possible the paved durable Roman roads many of which were still in use a thousand years after the fall of Rome The construction of a vast and efficient travel network throughout the Empire dramatically increased Rome's power and influence It was originally constructed to allow Roman legions to be rapidly deployed But these highways also had enormous economic significance solidifying Rome's role as a trading crossroads—the origin of the saying "all roads lead to Rome" The Roman government maintained a system of way stations known as the cursus publicus that provided refreshments to couriers at regular intervals along the roads and established a system of horse relays allowing a dispatch to travel up to km mi a day The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts to supply water to cities and industrial sites and to aid in their agriculture The city of Rome was supplied by aqueducts with a combined length of km mi Most aqueducts were constructed below the surface with only small portions above ground supported by arches Sometimes where valleys deeper than m ft had to be crossed inverted siphons were used to convey water across a valley The Romans also made major advancements in sanitation Romans were particularly famous for their public baths called thermae which were used for both hygienic and social purposes Many Roman houses came to have flush toilets and indoor plumbing and a complex sewer system the Cloaca Maxima was used to drain the local marshes and carry waste into the Tiber river Some historians have speculated that lead pipes in the sewer and plumbing systems led to widespread lead poisoning which contributed to the decline in birth rate and general decay of Roman society leading up to the fall of Rome However lead content would have been minimized because the flow of water from aqueducts could not be shut off it ran continuously through public and private outlets into the drains and only a few taps were in use Other authors have raised similar objections to this theory also pointing out that Roman water pipes were thickly coated with deposits that would have prevented lead from leaching into the water Legacy Main articles Legacy of the Roman Empire and Classics External video ImageRomeArchofTitus jpg Ancient Rome Smarthistory at Khan Academy Ancient Rome is the progenitor of Western civilization The customs religion law technology architecture political system military literature languages alphabet government and many factors and aspects of western civilization are all inherited from Roman advancements The rediscovery of Roman culture revitalized Western civilization playing a role in the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment Historiography Main article Roman historiography This section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed September Although there has been a diversity of works on ancient Roman history many of them are lost As a result of this loss there are gaps in Roman history which are filled by unreliable works such as the Historia Augusta and other books from obscure authors However there remains a number of reliable accounts of Roman history Ancient Roman architecture developed different aspects of Ancient Greek architecture and newer technologies such as the arch and the dome to make a new architectural style Roman architecture flourished throughout the Empire during the Pax Romana Its use of new materials particularly concrete was a very important feature Roman Architecture covers the period from the establishment of the Roman Republic in BC to about the th century AD after which it becomes reclassified as Late Antique or Byzantine architecture Most of the many surviving examples are from the later period Roman architectural style continued to influence building in the former empire for many centuries and the style used in Western Europe beginning about is called Romanesque architecture to reflect this dependence on basic Roman forms The Ancient Romans were responsible for significant developments in housing and public hygiene for example their public and private baths and latrines under floor heating in the form of the hypocaust mica glazing examples in Ostia Antica and piped hot and cold water examples in Pompeii and Ostia Contents hide History Architectural features Modern influences Materials City design Building types Infrastructure Decorative structures Significant buildings and areas See also References Further reading External links History edit Background edit Factors such as wealth and high population densities in cities forced the ancient Romans to discover new architectural solutions of their own The use of vaults and arches together with a sound knowledge of building materials enabled them to achieve unprecedented successes in the construction of imposing infurstructure for public use Examples include the aqueducts of Rome the Baths of Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla the basilicas and Colosseum These were reproduced at a smaller scale in most important towns and cities in the Empire Some surviving structures are almost complete such as the town walls of Lugo in Hispania Tarraconensis now northern Spain The Ancient Romans intended that community buildings should be made to impress and amaze as well as perform a public function The Romans did not feel restricted by Greek aesthetic axioms alone in achieving these objectives citation needed The Pantheon is an example of this particularly in the version rebuilt by Hadrian which remains perfectly preserved and which were over the centuries that has served particularly in the Western Hemisphere as the inspiration for countless public buildings The same emperor left his mark on the landscape of northern Britain when he built a wall to mark the limits of the empire and after further conquests in Scotland the Antonine Wall was built to replace Hadrian's Wall Influences edit The Romans were indebted to their Etruscan neighbors and forefathers who supplied them with a wealth of knowledge essential for future architectural solutions such as the use of hydraulics and the construction of arches The Romans absorbed Greek Architectural influence both directly e g Magna Graecia and indirectly e g Etruscan Architecture was itself influenced by the Greeks The influence is evident in many ways for example in the introduction and use of the Triclinium in Roman villas as a place and manner of dining The Romans were also known to employ Greek engineers to construct Roman buildings Roman Architectural Revolution edit The Roman Pantheon was the largest dome in the world for more than a millennium It is the largest unreinforced solid concrete dome to this day The Roman Architectural Revolution also known as the Concrete Revolution was the widespread use in Roman architecture of the previously little used architectural forms of the arch vault and dome For the first time in history their potential was fully exploited in the construction of a wide range of civil engineering structures public buildings and military facilities These included amphitheatres aqueducts baths bridges circuses dams domes harbours and temples A crucial factor in this development which saw a trend toward monumental architecture was the invention of Roman concrete opus caementicium which led to the liberation of shapes from the dictates of the traditional materials of stone and brick Architectural features edit The Roman use of the arch and their improvements in the use of concrete and bricks facilitated the building of the many aqueducts throughout the empire such as the Aqueduct of Segovia and the eleven aqueducts in Rome itself including the Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus The same concepts produced numerous bridges some of which are still in daily use for example the Puente Romano at Mérida in Spain and the Pont Julien and the bridge at Vaison la Romaine both in Provence France The dome permitted construction of vaulted ceilings without crossbeams and made possible large covered public space such as public baths and basilicas The Romans based much of their architecture on the dome such as Hadrian's Pantheon in the city of Rome the Baths of Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla The use of arches that spring directly from the tops of columns was a Roman development seen from the st century AD that was very widely adopted in medieval Western Byzantine and Islamic architecture Art historians such as Gottfried Richter have since the s identified the most important Roman architectural innovation as the Triumphal Arch This symbol of power was transformed and utilised within the Christian basilicas when the Roman Empire of the West was on its last legs The arch was set before the altar to symbolize the triumph of Christ and the afterlife The arch is seen in aqueducts especially in the many surviving examples such as the Pont du Gard the aqueduct at Segovia and the remains of the Aqueducts of Rome itself Their survival is testimony to the durability of their materials and design The Romans first adopted the arch from the Etruscans and implemented it in their own building An arch transmits load evenly and is still commonly used in architecture today Domes edit Main article History of Roman and Byzantine domes Further information List of Roman domes Dome of the Pantheon inner view The Romans were the first builders in the history of architecture to realize the potential of domes for the creation of large and well defined interior spaces Domes were introduced in a number of Roman building types such as temples thermae palaces mausolea and later also churches Half domes also became a favoured architectural element and were adopted as apses in Christian sacred architecture Monumental domes began to appear in the st century BC in Rome and the provinces around the Mediterranean Sea Along with vaults they gradually replaced the traditional post and lintel construction which makes use of the column and architrave The construction of domes was greatly facilitated by the invention of concrete a process which has been termed the Roman Architectural Revolution Their enormous dimensions remained unsurpassed until the introduction of structural steel frames in the late th century see List of the world's largest domes Mosaics edit On his return from campaigns in Greece the general Sulla brought back what is probably the most well known element of the early imperial period the mosaic a decoration made of colourful chips of stone inserted into cement This tiling method took the empire by storm in the late first century and the second century and in the Roman home joined the well known mural in decorating floors walls and grottoes with geometric and pictorial designs There were two main techniques in Greco Roman mosaic opus vermiculatum used tiny tesserae typically cubes of millimeters or less and was produced in workshops in relatively small panels which were transported to the site glued to some temporary support The tiny tesserae allowed very fine detail and an approach to the illusionism of painting Often small panels called emblemata were inserted into walls or as the highlights of larger floor mosaics in coarser work The normal technique however was opus tessellatum using larger tesserae which were laid on site There was a distinct native Italian style using black on a white background which was no doubt cheaper than fully coloured work A specific genre of Roman mosaic obtained the name asaroton Greek "unswept floor" It represented an optical illusion of the leftovers from a feast on the floor of reach houses Hypocaust edit A hypocaust was an ancient Roman system of underfloor heating used to heat houses with hot air The Roman architect Vitruvius writing about the end of the st century B C attributes their invention to Sergius Orata Many remains of Roman hypocausts have survived throughout Europe western Asia and northern Africa The hypocaust was an invention which improved the hygiene and living conditions of citizens and was a forerunner of modern central heating Hypocausts were used for heating hot baths thermae houses and other buildings whether public or private The floor was raised above the ground by pillars called pilae stacks with a layer of tiles then a layer of concrete then another of tiles on top and spaces were left inside the walls so that hot air and smoke from the furnace would pass through these enclosed areas and out of flues in the roof thereby heating but not polluting the interior of the room Roman roofs edit Further information List of ancient Greek and Roman roofs In Sicily truss roofs presumably appeared as early as BC Their potential was fully realized in the Roman period which saw trussed roofs over wide spanning the rectangular spaces of monumental public buildings such as temples basilicas and later churches Such spans were three times as wide as the widest prop and lintel roofs and only surpassed by the largest Roman domes The largest truss roof by span of Ancient Rome covered the Aula Regia throne room built for emperor Domitian – AD on the Palatine Hill Rome The timber truss roof had a width of m slightly surpassing the postulated limit of m for Roman roof constructions Tie beam trusses allowed for much larger spans than the older prop and lintel system and even concrete vaulting Nine out of the ten largest rectangular spaces in Roman architecture were bridged this way the only exception being the groin vaulted Basilica of Maxentius Spiral stairs edit Further information List of ancient spiral stairs The spiral stair is a type of stairway which due to its complex helical structure was introduced relatively late into architecture Although the oldest example dates back to the th century BC it was only in the wake of the influential design of Trajan's Column that this space saving new type permanently caught hold in Roman architecture Apart from the triumphal columns in the imperial cities of Rome and Constantinople other types of buildings such as temples thermae basilicas and tombs were also fitted with spiral stairways Their notable absence in the towers of the Aurelian Wall indicates that although used in medieval castles they did not yet figure prominently in Roman military engineering By late antiquity separate stair towers were constructed adjacent to the main buildings as in the Basilica of San Vitale The construction of spiral stairs passed on both to Christian and Islamic architecture Modern influences edit See also Romanesque architecture Late Antique and Byzantine architecture During the Baroque and the Renaissance periods Roman and Greek architectural styles again became fashionable not only in Italy but all over Europe Roman influences may be found around us today in banks government buildings great houses and even small houses perhaps in the form of a porch with Doric columns and a pediment or in a fireplace or a mosaic shower floor copied from an original in Pompeii or Herculaneum citation needed The mighty pillars domes and arches of Rome echo in the New World too where in Washington DC we see them in the Capitol Building the White House the Lincoln Memorial and other government buildings All across the US the seats of regional government were normally built in the grand traditions of Rome with vast flights of stone steps sweeping up to towering pillared porticoes with huge domes gilded or decorated inside with the same or similar themes that were popular in Rome In wealthy provincial parts of the US such as the great plantations of th and th century there too are the pillars and porticoes the symmetrical façades with their pilasters the domes and statuary that would have seemed familiar to Caesar and Augustus In Britain a similar enthusiasm has seen the construction of thousands of neo Classical buildings over the last five centuries both civic and domestic and many of the grandest country houses and mansions are purely Classical in style an obvious example being Buckingham Palace Materials edit Frigidarium of Baths of Diocletian today Santa Maria degli Angeli Tile covered concrete quickly supplanted marble as the primary building material and more daring buildings soon followed with great pillars supporting broad arches and domes rather than dense lines of columns suspending flat architraves The freedom of concrete also inspired the colonnade screen a row of purely decorative columns in front of a load bearing wall In smaller scale architecture concrete's strength freed the floor plan from rectangular cells to a more free flowing environment citation needed Most of these developments are described by Vitruvius writing in the first century AD in his work De Architectura Roman brick edit Main article Roman brick Close up view of the wall of the Roman shore fort at Burgh Castle Norfolk showing alternating courses of flint and brickwork The Romans made fired clay bricks and the Roman legions which operated mobile kilns introduced bricks to many parts of the empire Roman bricks are often stamped with the mark of the legion that supervised their production The use of bricks in southern and western Germany for example can be traced back to traditions already described by the Roman architect Vitruvius Roman brick was almost invariably of a lesser height than modern brick but was made in a variety of different shapes and sizes Shapes included square rectangular triangular and round and the largest bricks found have measured over three feet in length Ancient Roman bricks had a general size of ½ Roman feet by Roman foot but common variations up to inches existed Other brick sizes in Ancient Rome included " x " x " and " x " x " Ancient Roman bricks found in France measured " x " x " The Constantine Basilica in Trier is constructed from Roman bricks " square by ½" thick There is often little obvious difference particularly when only fragments survive between Roman bricks used for walls on the one hand and tiles used for roofing or flooring on the other so archaeologists sometimes prefer to employ the generic term ceramic building material or CBM The Romans perfected brick making during the first century of their empire and used it ubiquitously in public and private construction alike The Romans took their brickmaking skills everywhere they went introducing the craft to the local populations In the British Isles the introduction of Roman brick by the ancient Romans was followed by a – year gap in major brick production Roman concrete edit Main article Roman concrete Although concrete had been used on a minor scale in Mesopotamia Roman architects perfected Roman concrete and used it in buildings where it could stand on its own and support a great deal of weight The first use of concrete by the Romans was in the town of Cosa sometime after BC Ancient Roman concrete was a mixture of lime mortar aggregate pozzolana water and stones and was stronger than previously used concrete The ancient builders placed these ingredients in wooden frames where they hardened Canton is connected to the Interstate Highway System via Interstate 77 which connects Canton to Charleston, West Virginia, and points south, and to Cleveland and Akron, Ohio, to the north. U.S. Route 30 connects Canton to Fort Wayne, Indiana, and points west, and to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and points east. U.S. Route 62 connects Canton to Columbus, Ohio, and points southwest, and to Youngstown, Ohio, and points northeast. The city has several arterial roads. Ohio 43 (Market Avenue, Walnut Avenue and Cherry Avenue), Ohio 153 (12th Street and Mahoning Road), Ohio 172 (Tuscarawas Street) / The Lincoln Highway, Ohio 297 (Whipple Avenue and Raff Avenue), Ohio 627 (Faircrest Street), Ohio 687 (Fulton Drive), and Ohio 800 (Cleveland Avenue) / A.K.A. Old Route 8. Amtrak offers daily service to Chicago and Washington, D.C., from a regional passenger station located in Alliance, Ohio. Norfolk Southern and the Wheeling-Lake Erie railroads provide freight service in Canton. Akron-Canton Regional Airport (IATA: CAK, IACO: KCAK) is a commercial Class C airport located 10 miles (16 km) north of the city and provides daily commercial passenger and air freight service. Stark Area Regional Transit Authority (SARTA) provides public transit bus service within the county, including service to Massillon, the Akron-Canton Regional Airport, and the Amtrak station located in Alliance. Popular culture[edit] On the July 21, 2008, Stephen Colbert on The Colbert Report made a comment about John McCain making a campaign stop in Canton, Ohio, and "not the crappy Canton in Georgia."[38] The comment resulted in a local uproar, with the Canton, Georgia, mayor insisting Colbert had never visited the town along with an invitation for him to do so.[38] On July 30, 2008, Colbert apologized for the story, insisting that he was incorrect and that the "real" crappy Canton was Canton, Kansas, after which he made several jokes at the Kansas town's expense.[39][40] On August 5, Colbert apologized to citizens of Canton, Georgia and Canton, Kansas, then directing his derision on Canton, South Dakota. Colbert later went on to offer a half-hearted apology to Canton, South Dakota before proceeding to mock Canton, Texas. On October 28, Colbert turned his attention back to Canton, Ohio after Barack Obama made a campaign stop there, forcing Colbert to find it "crappy." This is a timeline of the history of Africans and their descendants in what is now the United States, from 1565 to the present. Contents [hide] 1 16th century 2 17th century 3 18th century 4 19th century 4.1 1800–1859 4.2 1860–1874 4.3 1875–1899 5 20th century 5.1 1900–1924 5.2 1925–1949 5.3 1950–1959 5.4 1960–1969 5.5 1970–2000 6 21st century 7 See also 8 Footnotes 9 Further reading 10 External links 16th century[edit] Main article: Slavery in Colonial United States 1565 The Spanish colony of St. Augustine in Florida became the first permanent European settlement in what would become the US centuries later; it included an unknown number of African slaves. 17th century[edit] 1619 The first record of Africans in English colonial America when men were brought to the Jamestown colony who had been taken as prizes from a Spanish ship. They were treated as indentured servants, and at least one was recorded as eventually owning land in the colony. 1640 John Punch, a black indentured servant, ran away with two white indentured servants, James Gregory and Victor. After the three were captured, Punch was sentenced to serve Virginia planter Hugh Gwyn for life. This made John Punch the first legally documented slave in Virginia (and the US).[1][2][3][4][5] 1654 John Casor, a black man who claimed to have completed his term of indenture, became the first legally recognized slave-for-life in a civil case in the Virginia colony. The court ruled with his master who said he had an indefinite servitude for life.[6] 1662 Virginia law, using the principle of partus sequitur ventrem, said that children in the colony were born into their mother's social status; therefore children born to enslaved mothers were classified as slaves, regardless of their father's race or status. This was contrary to English common law for English subjects, which held that children took their father's social status. 1672 Royal African Company is founded in England, allowing slaves to be shipped from Africa to the colonies in North America and the Caribbean. England entered the slave trade. 1676 Both free and enslaved African Americans fought in Bacon's Rebellion along with English colonists.[7] 18th century[edit] See also: Atlantic slave trade 1705 The Virginia Slave codes define as slaves all those servants brought into the colony who were not Christian in their original countries, as well as those American Indians sold by other Indians to colonists. 1712 April 6 – The New York Slave Revolt of 1712.[8] 1739 September 9 – In the Stono Rebellion, South Carolina slaves gather at the Stono River to plan an armed march for freedom.[9] 1753 Benjamin Banneker designed and built the first clock in the British American colonies. He also created a series of almanacs. He corresponded with Thomas Jefferson and wrote that "blacks were intellectually equal to whites". Banneker worked with Pierre L'Enfant to survey and design a street and urban plan for Washington, D.C.[10] 1760 Jupiter Hammon has a poem printed, becoming the first published African-American poet. 1765–1767 Non-Importation Agreements – The First Continental Congress creates a multi-colony agreement to forbid importation of anything from British merchants. This implicitly includes slaves, and stops the slave trade in Philadelphia. The second similar act explicitly stops the slave trade.[11] 1770 March 5 – Crispus Attucks is killed by British soldiers in the Boston Massacre, a precursor to the American Revolution. 1773 Phillis Wheatley has her book Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral published. 1774 The first black Baptist congregations are organized in the South: Silver Bluff Baptist Church in South Carolina, and First African Baptist Church near Petersburg, Virginia. 1775 April 14 – The Society for the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully held in Bondage holds four meetings. It was re-formed in 1784 as the Pennsylvania Abolition Society, and Benjamin Franklin would later be its president. 1776–1783 American Revolution Thousands of enslaved African Americans in the South escape to British lines, as they were promised freedom to fight with the British. In South Carolina, 25,000 enslaved African Americans, one-quarter of those held, escape to the British or otherwise leave their plantations.[12] After the war, many African Americans are evacuated with the British for England; more than 3,000 Black Loyalists are transported with other Loyalists to Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, where they are granted land. Still others go to Jamaica and the West Indies. An estimated 8-10,000 were evacuated from the colonies in these years as free people, about 50 percent of those slaves who defected to the British and about 80 percent of those who survived.[13] Many free blacks in the North fight with the colonists for the rebellion. 1777 July 8 – The Vermont Republic (a sovereign nation at the time) abolishes slavery, the first future state to do so. No slaves were held in Vermont. 1780 Pennsylvania becomes the first U.S. state to abolish slavery. 1781 In challenges by Elizabeth Freeman and Quock Walker, two independent county courts in Massachusetts found slavery illegal under state constitution and declared each to be free persons. 1783 Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court affirmed that Massachusetts state constitution had abolished slavery. It ruled that "the granting of rights and privileges [was] wholly incompatible and repugnant to" slavery, in an appeal case arising from the escape of Marijonas Mikutavicius – singer author of Trys Milijonai the unofficial sports anthem in Lithuania Vincas Niekus – lt Vincas Niekus composer Virgilijus Noreika – one of the most successful opera singers tenor Mykolas Kleopas Oginskis – one of the best composer of the late th century Kipras Petrauskas – lt Kipras Petrauskas popular early opera singer tenor Stasys Povilaitis – one of the popular singers during the Soviet period Violeta Riaubiškyte – pop singer TV show host Mindaugas Rojus opera singer tenor baritone Ceslovas Sasnauskas – composer Rasa Serra – lt Rasa Serra real name Rasa Veretenceviene singer Traditional folk A cappella jazz POP Audrone Simonaityte Gaižiuniene – lt Audrone Gaižiuniene Simonaityte one of the more popular female opera singers soprano Virgis Stakenas – lt Virgis Stakenas singer of country folk music Antanas Šabaniauskas – lt Antanas Šabaniauskas singer tenor Jurga Šeduikyte – art rock musician won the Best Female Act and the Best Album of in the Lithuanian Bravo Awards and the Best Baltic Act at the MTV Europe Music Awards Jonas Švedas – composer Michael Tchaban composer singer and songwriter Violeta Urmanaviciute Urmana opera singer soprano mezzosoprano appearing internationally Painters and graphic artists edit See also List of Lithuanian artists Robertas Antinis – sculptor Vytautas Ciplijauskas lt Vytautas Ciplijauskas painter Jonas Ceponis – lt Jonas Ceponis painter Mikalojus Konstantinas Ciurlionis – painter and composer Asteroid Ciurlionis is named for him Kostas Dereškevicius lt Kostas Dereškevicius painter Vladimiras Dubeneckis painter architect Stasys Eidrigevicius graphic artist Pranas Gailius lt Pranas Gailius painter Paulius Galaune Petronele Gerlikiene – self taught Lithuanian American artist Algirdas Griškevicius lt Algirdas Griškevicius Vincas Grybas – sculptor Leonardas Gutauskas lt Leonardas Gutauskas painter writer Vytautas Kairiukštis – lt Vytautas Kairiukštis painter art critic Vytautas Kasiulis – lt Vytautas Kasiulis painter graphic artist stage designer Petras Kalpokas painter Rimtas Kalpokas – lt Rimtas Kalpokas painter graphic artist Leonas Katinas – lt Leonas Katinas painter Povilas Kaupas – lt Povilas Kaupas Algimantas Kezys Lithuanian American photographer Vincas Kisarauskas – lt Vincas Kisarauskas painter graphic artist stage designer Saulute Stanislava Kisarauskiene – lt Saulute Stanislava Kisarauskiene graphic artist painter Stasys Krasauskas – lt Stasys Krasauskas graphic artist Stanislovas Kuzma – lt Stanislovas Kuzma sculptor Antanas Martinaitis – lt Antanas Martinaitis painter Jonas Rimša – lt Jonas Rimša painter Jan Rustem painter Antanas Samuolis – lt Antanas Samuolis painter Šarunas Sauka painter Boris Schatz – sculptor and founder of the Bezalel Academy Irena Sibley née Pauliukonis – Children s book author and illustrator Algis Skackauskas – painter Antanas Žmuidzinavicius – painter Franciszek Smuglewicz – painter Yehezkel Streichman Israeli painter Kazys Šimonis – painter Algimantas Švegžda – lt Algimantas Švegžda painter Otis Tamašauskas Lithographer Print Maker Graphic Artist Adolfas Valeška – painter and graphic artist Adomas Varnas – painter Kazys Varnelis – artist Vladas Vildžiunas lt Vladas Vildžiunas sculptor Mikalojus Povilas Vilutis lt Mikalojus Povilas Vilutis graphic artist Viktoras Vizgirda – painter William Zorach – Modern artist who died in Bath Maine Antanas Žmuidzinavicius – painter Kazimieras Leonardas Žoromskis – painter Politics edit President Valdas Adamkus right chatting with Vice President Dick Cheney left See also List of Lithuanian rulers Mindaugas – the first and only King of Lithuania – Gediminas – the ruler of Lithuania – Algirdas – the ruler together with Kestutis of Lithuania – Kestutis – the ruler together with Algirdas of Lithuania – Vytautas – the ruler of Lithuania – together with Jogaila Jogaila – the ruler of Lithuania – from to together with Vytautas the king of Poland – Jonušas Radvila – the field hetman of Grand Duchy of Lithuania – Dalia Grybauskaite – current President of Lithuania since Valdas Adamkus – President of Lithuania till Jonas Basanavicius – "father" of the Act of Independence of Algirdas Brazauskas – the former First secretary of Central Committee of Communist Party of Lithuanian SSR the former president of Lithuania after and former Prime Minister of Lithuania Joe Fine – mayor of Marquette Michigan – Kazys Grinius – politician third President of Lithuania Mykolas Krupavicius – priest behind the land reform in interwar Lithuania Vytautas Landsbergis – politician professor leader of Sajudis the independence movement former speaker of Seimas member of European Parliament Stasys Lozoraitis – diplomat and leader of Lithuanian government in exile – Stasys Lozoraitis junior – politician diplomat succeeded his father as leader of Lithuanian government in exile – Antanas Merkys – the last Prime Minister of interwar Lithuania Rolandas Paksas – former President removed from the office after impeachment Justas Paleckis – journalist and politician puppet Prime Minister after Soviet occupation Kazimiera Prunskiene – the first female Prime Minister Mykolas Sleževicius – three times Prime Minister organized

and bonded to a facing of stones or more frequently bricks When the framework was removed the new wall was very strong with a rough surface of bricks or stones This surface could be smoothed and faced with an attractive stucco or thin panels of marble or other coloured stones called revetment Concrete construction proved to be more flexible and less costly than building solid stone buildings The materials were readily available and not difficult to transport The wooden frames could be used more than once allowing builders to work quickly and efficiently Though most would consider concrete the Roman contribution most relevant to the modern world the Empire's style of architecture can still be seen throughout Europe and North America in the arches and domes of many governmental and religious buildings citation needed City design edit Further information Centuriation Decumanus Maximus and Cardo The ancient Romans employed regular orthogonal structures on which they molded their colonies They probably were inspired by Greek and Hellenic examples as well as by regularly planned cities that were built by the Etruscans in Italy see Marzabotto The Romans used a consolidated scheme for city planning developed for military defense and civil convenience The basic plan consisted of a central forum with city services surrounded by a compact rectilinear grid of streets and wrapped in a wall for defense To reduce travel times two diagonal streets crossed the square grid passing through the central square A river usually flowed through the city providing water transport and sewage disposal Hundreds of towns and cities were built by the Romans throughout their empire Many European towns such as Turin preserve the remains of these schemes which show the very logical way the Romans designed their cities They would lay out the streets at right angles in the form of a square grid All roads were equal in width and length except for two which were slightly wider than the others One of these ran east–west the other north–south and they intersected in the middle to form the center of the grid All roads were made of carefully fitted flag stones and filled in with smaller hard packed rocks and pebbles Bridges were constructed where needed Each square marked off by four roads was called an insula the Roman equivalent of a modern city block Each insula was yards m square with the land within it divided As the city developed each insula would eventually be filled with buildings of various shapes and sizes and crisscrossed with back roads and alleys Most insulae were given to the first settlers of a Roman city but each person had to pay to construct his own house The city was surrounded by a wall to protect it from invaders and to mark the city limits Areas outside city limits were left open as farmland At the end of each main road was a large gateway with watchtowers A portcullis covered the opening when the city was under siege and additional watchtowers were constructed along the city walls An aqueduct was built outside the city walls The development of Greek and Roman urbanization is relatively well known as there are relatively many written sources and there has been much attention to the subject since the Romans and Greeks are generally regarded as the main ancestors of modern Western culture It should not be forgotten though that there were also other cultures with more or less urban settlements in Europe primarily of Celtic origin Among these there are also some that appear to have been newly planned such as the Lusatian town of Biskupin in Poland Building types edit Amphitheatre edit Main article Roman amphitheatre Further information List of Roman amphitheatres Roman theatre of Aspendos Turkey Some of the most impressive secular buildings are the amphitheatres over being known and many of which are well preserved such as that at Arles as well as its progenitor the Colosseum in Rome They were used for gladiatorial contests public displays public meetings and bullfights the tradition of which still survives in Spain Their typical shape functions and name distinguish them from Roman theatres which are more or less semicircular in shape from the circuses akin to hippodromes whose much longer circuits were designed mainly for horse or chariot racing events and from the smaller stadia which were primarily designed for athletics and footraces The earliest Roman amphitheatres date from the middle of the first century BC but most were built under Imperial rule from the Augustan period BC– AD onwards Imperial amphitheatres were built throughout the Roman empire the largest could accommodate – spectators and the most elaborate featured multi storeyed arcaded façades and were elaborately decorated with marble stucco and statuary After the end of gladiatorial games in the th century and of animal killings in the th most amphitheatres fell into disrepair and their materials were mined or recycled Some were razed and others converted into fortifications A few continued as convenient open meeting places in some of these churches were sited Basilica edit Northern aisle of the Basilica of Maxentius in Rome The Roman basilica was a large public building where business or legal matters could be transacted The first basilicas had no religious function at all As early as the time of Augustus a public basilica for transacting business had been part of any settlement that considered itself a city used in the same way as the late medieval covered market houses of northern Europe where the meeting room for lack of urban space was set above the arcades however Although their form was variable basilicas often contained interior colonnades that divided the space giving aisles or arcaded spaces on one or both sides with an apse at one end or less often at each end where the magistrates sat often on a slightly raised dais The central aisle tended to be wide and was higher than the flanking aisles so that light could penetrate through the clerestory windows The oldest known basilica the Basilica Porcia was built in Rome in BC by Cato the Elder during the time he was Censor Other early examples include the basilica at Pompeii late nd century BC Circus edit The Roman circus was a large open air venue used for public events in the ancient Roman Empire The circuses were similar to the ancient Greek hippodromes although circuses served varying purposes and differed in design and construction Along with theatres and amphitheatres Circuses were one of the main entertainment sites of the time Circuses were venues for chariot races horse races and performances that commemorated important events of the empire were performed there For events that involved re enactments of naval battles the circus was flooded with water The performance space of the Roman circus was normally despite its name an oblong rectangle of two linear sections of race track separated by a median strip running along the length of about two thirds the track joined at one end with a semicircular section and at the other end with an undivided section of track closed in most cases by a distinctive starting gate known as the carceres thereby creating a circuit for the races Forum edit Further information Roman Forum and List of monuments of the Roman Forum The Roman Forum A forum was a public square in a Roman municipium or any civitas reserved primarily for the vending of goods i e a marketplace along with the buildings used for shops and the stoas used for open stalls Many forums were constructed at remote locations along a road by the magistrate responsible for the road in which case the forum was the only settlement at the site and had its own name such as Forum Popili or Forum Livi Every city had a forum of varying size In addition to its standard function as a marketplace a forum was a gathering place of great social significance and often the scene of diverse activities including political discussions and debates rendezvous meetings etc The best known example is probably in Rome Italy and is the site of the earliest forum of the empire In new Roman towns the Forum was usually located at or just off the intersection of the main north south and east west streets the Cardo and Decumanus All forums would have a Temple of Jupiter at the north end and would also contain other temples as well as the Basilica a public weights and measures table so customers at the market could ensure they were not being sold short measures and would often have the baths nearby A panoramic view of the Forum Trajanum with the Trajan's Column on the far left Horreum edit A horreum was a type of public warehouse used during the ancient Roman period Although the Latin term is often used to refer to granaries Roman horrea were used to store many other types of consumables the giant Horrea Galbae in Rome were used not only to store grain but also olive oil wine foodstuffs clothing and even marble By the end of the imperial period the city of Rome had nearly horrea to supply its demands The biggest were enormous even by modern standards the Horrea Galbae contained rooms on the ground floor alone covering an area of some square feet m² The first horrea were built in Rome towards the end of the nd century BC with the first known public horreum being constructed by the ill fated tribune Gaius Gracchus in BC The word came to be applied to any place designated for the preservation of goods thus it was often used refer to cellars horrea subterranea but it could also be applied to a place where artworks were stored or even to a library Some public horrea functioned somewhat like banks where valuables could be stored but the most important class of horrea were those where foodstuffs such as grain and olive oil were stored and distributed by the state Insula edit Insula in Ostia Antica Main article Insula building Multi story apartment blocks called insulae catered to a range of residential needs The cheapest rooms were at the top owing to the inability to escape in the event of a fire and the lack of piped water Windows were mostly small facing the street with iron security bars Insulae were often dangerous unhealthy and prone to fires because of overcrowding and haphazard cooking arrangements citation needed There are examples in the Roman port town of Ostia that date back to the reign of Trajan External walls were in "Opus Reticulatum" and interiors in "Opus Incertum" which would then be plastered and sometimes painted To lighten up the small dark rooms tenants able to afford a degree of luxury painted colourful murals on the walls Examples have been found of jungle scenes with wild animals and exotic plants Imitation windows trompe l'oeil were sometimes painted to make the rooms seem less confined Ancient Rome is known to have had elaborate massive and beautiful houses and buildings These houses and buildings belonged to those in higher social status The average house of a commoner or Plebe did not contain many luxuries There were members of the upper class that tended to flash their wealth into their design and architecture of their house Many Romans perceived this morally wrong and considered to be luxuria or vice to makes people squander their money wealth They showed more regard towards convenience than expense Domus or single family residences were rare with most having a layout of the closed unit consisting of one or two rooms Between to A D Rome had domus and of insulae Insula has been the subject of great debate for historians of Roman culture as they argued over the various meanings of the word Insula was a word used to describe apartment buildings or the apartments themselves meaning apartment or inhabitable room demonstrating just how small apartments for Plebes were Urban divisions were originally street blocks and later began to divide into smaller divisions the word insula referring to both blocks and smaller divisions The insula contained cenacula tabernae storage rooms under the stairs and lower floor shops Another type of housing unit for Plebes was a cenaculum an apartment divided into three individual rooms cubiculum exedra and medianum Common Roman apartments were mainly masses of smaller and larger structures many with narrow balconies that present mysteries as to their use having no doors to access them and they lacked the excessive decoration and display of wealth that aristocrats’ houses contained Luxury in houses was not common as the life of the average person did not consist of being in their houses as they instead would go to public baths and engage in other communal activities Lighthouses edit Main article Roman lighthouse The Tower of Hercules Many lighthouses were built around the Mediterranean and the coasts of the empire including the Tower of Hercules at A Coruña in northern Spain a structure which survives to this day A smaller lighthouse at Dover England also exists as a ruin about half the height of the original The light would have been provided by a fire at the top of the structure Thermae edit Main article Thermae Further information List of Roman public baths All Roman cities had at least one Thermae a popular facility for public bathing exercising and socializing Exercise might include wrestling and weight lifting as well as swimming Bathing was an important part of the Roman day where some hours might be spent at a very low cost subsidized by the government Wealthier Romans were often accompanied by one or more slaves who performed any required tasks such as fetching refreshment guarding valuables providing towels and at the end of the session applying olive oil to their masters' bodies which was then scraped off with a strigil a scraper made of wood or bone Romans did not wash with soap and water as we do now Roman bath houses were also provided for private villas town houses and forts They were normally supplied with water from an adjacent river or stream or by aqueduct The design of thermae is discussed by Vitruvius in De Architectura Temples edit Main article Roman temple Roman architecture was often at its most beautiful and impressive when adapted to the needs of Roman religion The Pantheon in Rome has survived structurally intact because it has been continuously used for worship since it was built over years ago citation needed Although its interiors were altered when worship changed from paganism to Christianity it is the finest and largest example of a dome built in antiquity still surviving Theatres edit Roman theatres were built in all areas of the empire from Spain to the Middle East Because of the Romans' ability to influence local architecture we see numerous theatres around the world with uniquely Roman attributes These buildings were semi circular and possessed certain inherent architectural structures with minor differences depending on the region in which they were constructed The scaenae frons was a high back wall of the stage floor supported by columns The proscaenium was a wall that supported the front edge of the stage with ornately decorated niches off to the sides The Hellenistic influence is seen through the use of the proscaenium The Roman theatre also had a podium which sometimes supported the columns of the scaenae frons The scaenae was originally not part of the building itself constructed only to provide sufficient background for the actors Eventually it became a part of the edifice itself made out of concrete The theatre itself was divided into the stage orchestra and the seating section auditorium Vomitoria or entrances and exits were made available to the audience Villa edit Further information Villa rustica See also List of Roman villas in England and List of Roman villas in Belgium A Roman villa was a Roman country house built for the upper class during the Roman republic and the Roman Empire The Empire contained many kinds of villas not all of them lavishly appointed with mosaic floors and frescoes In the provinces any country house with some decorative features in the Roman style may be called a "villa" by modern scholars Some were pleasure houses such as those— like Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli— that were situated in the cool hills within easy reach of Rome or— like the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum— on picturesque sites overlooking the Bay of Naples Some villas were more like the country houses of England or Poland the visible seat of power of a local magnate such as the famous palace rediscovered at Fishbourne in Sussex Suburban villas on the edge of cities were also known such as the Middle and Late Republican villas that encroached on the Campus Martius at that time on the edge of Rome and which can be also seen outside the city walls of Pompeii These early suburban villas such as the one at Rome's Auditorium site or at Grottarossa in Rome demonstrate the antiquity and heritage of the villa suburbana in Central Italy It is possible that these early suburban villas were also in fact the seats of power maybe even palaces of regional strongmen or heads of important families gentes A third type of villa provided the organizational center of the large holdings called latifundia that produced and exported agricultural produce such villas might be lacking in luxuries By the th century villa could simply connote an agricultural holding Jerome translated the Gospel of Mark xiv chorion describing the olive grove of Gethsemane with villa without an inference that there were any dwellings there at all Catholic Encyclopedia "Gethsemane" Watermills edit Further information List of ancient watermills The initial invention of the watermill appears to have occurred in the hellenized eastern Mediterranean in the wake of the conquests of Alexander the Great and the rise of Hellenistic science and technology In the subsequent Roman era the use of water power was diversified and different types of watermills were introduced These include all three variants of the vertical water wheel as well as the horizontal water wheel Apart from its main use in grinding flour water power was also applied to pounding grain crushing ore sawing stones and possibly fulling and bellows for iron furnaces Infrastructure edit Roads edit Roman roads were vital to the maintenance and development of the Roman state and were built from about BC through the expansion and consolidation of the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire They provided efficient means for the overland movement of armies officials and civilians and the inland carriage of official communications and trade goods At the peak of Rome's development no fewer than great military highways radiated from the capital and the Late Empire's provinces were interconnected by great road links Roman road builders aimed at a regulation width see Laws and standards above but actual widths have been measured at between ft m and more than ft m Today the concrete has worn from the spaces around the stones giving the impression of a very bumpy road but the original practice was to produce a surface that was no doubt much closer to being flat Aqueduct edit Main article Roman aqueduct Further information List of aqueducts in the Roman Empire The Aqueduct of Segovia Spain The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts in order to bring water from distant sources into their cities and towns supplying public baths latrines fountains and private households Waste water was removed by complex sewage systems and released into nearby bodies of water keeping the towns clean and free from effluent Aqueducts also provided water for mining operations milling farms and gardens Aqueducts moved water through gravity alone being constructed along a slight downward gradient within conduits of stone brick or concrete Most were buried beneath the ground and followed its contours obstructing peaks were circumvented or less often tunnelled through Where valleys or lowlands intervened the conduit was carried on bridgework or its contents fed into high pressure lead ceramic or stone pipes and siphoned across Most aqueduct systems included sedimentation tanks sluices and distribution tanks to regulate the supply at need Rome's first aqueduct supplied a water fountain sited at the city's cattle market By the third century AD the city had eleven aqueducts sustaining a population of over a million in a water extravagant economy most of the water supplied the city's many public baths Cities and municipalities throughout the Roman Empire emulated this model and funded aqueducts as objects of public interest and civic pride "an expensive yet necessary luxury to which all could and did aspire " Most Roman aqueducts proved reliable and durable some were maintained into the early modern era and a few are still partly in use Methods of aqueduct surveying and construction are noted by Vitruvius in his work De Architectura st century BC The general Frontinus gives more detail in his official report on the problems uses and abuses of Imperial Rome's public water supply Notable examples of aqueduct architecture include the supporting piers of the Aqueduct of Segovia and the aqueduct fed cisterns of Constantinople Bridges edit Main article Roman bridge Further information List of Roman bridges Roman bridges built by ancient Romans were the first large and lasting bridges built Roman bridges were built with stone and had the arch as the basic structure see arch bridge Most utilized concrete as well which the Romans were the first to use for bridges Roman arch bridges were usually semicircular although a few were segmental such as Alconétar Bridge A segmental arch is an arch that is less than a semicircle The advantages of the segmental arch bridge were that it allowed great amounts of flood water to pass under it which would prevent the bridge from being swept away during floods and the bridge itself could be more lightweight Generally Roman bridges featured wedge shaped primary arch stones voussoirs of the same in size and shape The Romans built both single spans and lengthy multiple arch aqueducts such as the Pont du Gard and Segovia Aqueduct Their bridges featured from an early time onwards flood openings in the piers e g in the Pons Fabricius in Rome BC one of the world's oldest major bridges still standing Roman engineers were the first and until the industrial revolution the only ones to construct bridges with concrete which they called Opus caementicium The outside was usually covered with brick or ashlar as in the Alcántara bridge The Romans also introduced segmental arch bridges into bridge construction The m long Limyra Bridge in southwestern Turkey features segmental arches with an average span to rise ratio of giving the bridge an unusually flat profile unsurpassed for more than a millennium Trajan's bridge over the Danube featured open spandrel segmental arches made of wood standing on m high concrete piers This was to be the longest arch bridge for a thousand years both in terms of overall and individual span length while the longest extant Roman bridge is the m long Puente Romano at Mérida Canals edit Further information List of Roman canals Roman canals were typically multi purpose structures intended for irrigation drainage land reclamation flood control and navigation where feasible Some navigational canals were recorded by ancient geographers and are still traceable by modern archaeology Channels which served the needs of urban water supply are covered at the List of aqueducts in the Roman Empire Cisterns edit Further information List of Roman cisterns The Basilica Cistern in Constantinople provided water for the Imperial Palace Freshwater reservoirs were commonly set up at the termini of aqueducts and their branch lines supplying urban households agricultural estates imperial palaces thermae or naval bases of the Roman navy Dams edit Further information List of Roman dams and reservoirs Roman dam construction began in earnest in the early imperial period For the most part it concentrated on the semi arid fringe of the empire namely the provinces of North Africa the Near East and Hispania The relative abundance of Spanish dams below is due partly to more intensive field work there for Italy only the Subiaco Dams created by emperor Nero – AD for recreational purposes are attested These dams are noteworthy though for their extraordinary height which remained unsurpassed anywhere in the world until the Late Middle Ages The most frequent dam types were earth or rock filled embankment dams and masonry gravity dams These served a wide array of purposes such as irrigation flood control river diversion soil retention or a combination of these functions The impermeability of Roman dams was increased by the introduction of waterproof hydraulic mortar and especially opus caementicium in the Concrete Revolution These materials also allowed for bigger structures to be built like the Lake Homs Dam possibly the largest water barrier today and the sturdy Harbaqa Dam both of which consist of a concrete core Roman builders were the first to realize the stabilizing effect of arches and buttresses which they integrated into their dam designs Previously unknown dam types introduced by the Romans include arch gravity dams arch dams buttress dams and multiple arch buttress dams Decorative structures edit Monoliths edit Further information List of ancient Greek and Roman monoliths In architecture a monolith is a structure which has been excavated as a unit from a surrounding matrix or outcropping of rock Monoliths are found in all types of Roman buildings They were either quarried without being moved or quarried and moved or quarried moved and lifted clear off the ground into their position e g architraves or quarried moved and erected in an upright position e g columns Transporting was done by land or water or a combination of both in the later case often by special built ships such as obelisk carriers For lifting operations ancient cranes were employed since ca BC such as in the construction of Trajan's Column Obelisks edit Further information List of obelisks in Rome Obelisco Sallustiano in front of the church of Trinità dei Monti in Rome An obelisk is a tall four sided narrow tapering monument which ends in a pyramid like shape at the top These were originally called "tekhenu" by the builders the Ancient Egyptians The Greeks who saw them used the Greek 'obeliskos' to describe them and this word passed into Latin and then English The Romans commissioned obelisks in an ancient Egyptian style Examples include Arles France —the Arles Obelisk in Place de la République a th century obelisk of Roman origin Benevento Italy — three Roman obelisks Munich — obelisk of Titus Sextius Africanus Staatliches Museum Ägyptischer Kunst Kunstareal st century AD m Rome — there are five ancient Roman obelisks in Rome Roman gardens edit Gardens in Conimbriga Portugal Roman gardens were influenced by Egyptian Persian and Greek gardening techniques In Ancient Latium a garden was part of every farm According to Cato the Elder every garden should be close to the house and should have flower beds and ornamental trees Horace wrote that during his time flower gardens became a national indulgence Gardens were not reserved for the extremely wealthy Excavations in Pompeii show that gardens attaching to residences were scaled down to meet the space constraints of the home of the average Roman Modified versions of Roman garden designs were adopted in Roman settlements in Africa Gaul and Britannia As town houses were replaced by tall insula apartment buildings these urban gardens were replaced by window boxes or roof gardens citation needed Triumphal arch edit Further information List of Roman triumphal arches Photograph The Arch of Titus in Rome an early Roman imperial triumphal arch with a single archway Close up photograph of arch ornamentation Titus' triumphal procession depicted on the Arch of Titus showing the loot captured from Jerusalem in AD A triumphal arch is a monumental structure in the shape of an archway with one or more arched passageways often designed to span a road The origins of the Roman triumphal arch are unclear There were precursors to the triumphal arch within the Roman world in Italy the Etruscans used elaborately decorated single bay arches as gates or portals to their cities Surviving examples of Etruscan arches can still be seen at Perugia and Volterra The two key elements of the triumphal arch – a round topped arch and a square entablature – had long been in use as separate architectural elements in ancient Greece The innovation of the Romans was to these elements in a single free standing structure The columns became purely decorative elements on the outer face of arch while the entablature liberated from its role as a building support became the frame for the civic and religious messages that the arch builders wished to convey Little is known about how the Romans viewed triumphal arches Pliny the Elder writing in the first century AD was the only ancient author to discuss them He wrote that they were intended to "elevate above the ordinary world" an image of an honoured person usually depicted in the form of a statue with a quadriga The first recorded Roman triumphal arches were set up in the time of the Roman Republic Generals who were granted a triumph were termed triumphators and would erect fornices or honorific arches bearing statues to commemorate their victories Roman triumphal practices changed significantly at the start of the imperial period when the first Roman Emperor Augustus decreed that only emperors would be granted triumphs The triumphal arch changed from being a personal monument to being an essentially propagandistic one serving to announce and promote the presence of the ruler and the laws of the state Arches were not necessarily built as entrances but – unlike many modern triumphal arches – they were often erected across roads and were intended to be passed through not round Most Roman triumphal arches were built during the imperial period By the fourth century AD there were such arches in Rome of which three have survived – the Arch of Titus AD the Arch of Septimius Severus and the Arch of Constantine Numerous arches were built elsewhere in the Roman Empire The single arch was the most common but many triple arches were also built of which the Triumphal Arch of Orange circa AD is the earliest surviving example From the nd century AD many examples of the arcus quadrifrons – a square triumphal arch erected over a crossroads with arched openings on all four sides – were built especially in North Africa Arch building in Rome and Italy diminished after the time of Trajan AD but remained widespread in the provinces during the nd and rd centuries AD they were often erected to commemorate imperial visits The ornamentation of an arch was intended to serve as a constant visual reminder of the triumph and triumphator The façade was ornamented with marble columns and the piers and attics with decorative cornices Sculpted panels depicted victories and achievements the deeds of the triumphator the captured weapons of the enemy or the triumphal procession itself The spandrels usually depicted flying Victories while the attic was often inscribed with a dedicatory inscription naming and praising the triumphator The piers and internal passageways were also decorated with reliefs and free standing sculptures The vault was ornamented with coffers Some triumphal arches were surmounted by a statue or a currus triumphalis a group of statues depicting the emperor or general in a quadriga Inscriptions on Roman triumphal arches were works of art in themselves with very finely cut sometimes gilded letters The form of February 3 – The Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution guarantees the right of male citizens of the United States to vote regardless of race, color or previous condition of servitude. February 25 – Hiram Rhodes Revels becomes the first black member of the Senate (see African Americans in the United States Congress). Christian Methodist Episcopal Church founded. First two Enforcement Acts. 1871 October 10 – Octavius Catto, a civil rights activist, is murdered during harassment of blacks on Election Day in Philadelphia. US Civil Rights Act of 1871 passed, also known as the Klan Act and Third Enforcement Act. 1872 December 11 – P. B. S. Pinchback is sworn in as the first black member of the U.S. House of Representatives. Disputed gubernatorial election in Louisiana cause political violence for more than two years. Both Republican and Democratic governors hold inaugurations and certify local officials. Elijah McCoy patented his first invention, an automatic lubricator that supplied oil to moving parts while a machine was still operating.[21] 1873 April 14 – In the Slaughter-House Cases the U.S. Supreme Court votes 5–4 for a narrow reading of the Fourteenth Amendment. The court also discusses dual citizenship: State citizens and U.S. citizens. Easter – The Colfax Massacre; more than 100 blacks in the Red River area of Louisiana are killed when attacked by white militia after defending Republicans in local office – continuing controversy from gubernatorial election. The Coushatta MassacreRepublican officeholders are run out of town and murdered by white militia before leaving the state – four of six were relatives of a Louisiana state senator, a northerner who had settled in the South, married into a local family and established a plantation. Five to twenty black witnesses are also killed. 1874 Founding of paramilitary groups that act as the "military arm of the Democratic Party": the White League in Louisiana and the Red Shirts in Mississippi, and North and South Carolina. They terrorize blacks and Republicans, turning them out of office, killing some, disrupting rallies, and suppressing voting. September – In New Orleans, continuing political violence erupts related to the still-contested gubernatorial election of 1872. Thousands of the White League armed militia march into New Orleans, then the seat of government, where they outnumber the integrated city police and black state militia forces. They defeat Republican forces and demand that Gov. Kellogg leave office. The Democratic candidate McEnery is installed and White Leaguers occupy the capitol, state house and arsenal. This was called the "Battle of Liberty Place". The White League and McEnery withdraw after three days in advance of federal troops arriving to reinforce the Republican state government. 1875–1899[edit] 1875 March 1 – Civil Rights Act of 1875 signed. The Mississippi Plan to intimidate blacks and suppress black voter registration and voting. 1876 Lewis Latimer prepared drawings for Alexander Graham Bell's application for a telephone patent.[22] July 8 – The Hamburg Massacre occurs when local people riot against African Americans who were trying to celebrate the Fourth of July. varied – White Democrats regain power in many southern state legislatures and pass the first Jim Crow laws. 1877 With the Compromise of 1877, Republican Rutherford B. Hayes withdraws federal troops from the South in exchange for being elected President of the United States, causing the collapse of the last three remaining Republican state governments. The compromise formally ends the Reconstruction era of the United States. 1879 Spring – Thousands of African Americans refuse to live under segregation in the South and migrate to Kansas. They become known as Exodusters. 1880 In Strauder v. West Virginia, the U.S. Supreme Court rules that African Americans could not be excluded from juries. During the 1880s, African Americans in the South reach a peak of numbers in being elected and holding local offices, even while white Democrats are working to assert control at state level. 1881 April 11 – Spelman Seminary is founded as the Atlanta Baptist Female Seminary. July 4 – Booker T. Washington opens the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute in Tuskegee, Alabama. 1882 Lewis Latimer invented the first long-lasting filament for light bulbs and installed his lighting system in New York City, Philadelphia, and Canada. Later, he became one of the 28 members of Thomas Edison's Pioneers.[22] A biracial populist coalition achieves power in Virginia (briefly). The legislature founds the first public college for African Americans, Virginia Normal and Collegiate Institute, as well as the first mental hospital for African Americans, both near Petersburg, Virginia. The hospital was established in December 1869, at Howard's Grove Hospital, a former Confederate unit, but is moved to a new campus in 1882. 1883 October 16 – In Civil Rights Cases, the U.S. Supreme Court strikes down the Civil Rights Act of 1875 as unconstitutional. 1884 Mark Twain's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is published, featuring the admirable African-American character Jim. Judy W. Reed, of Washington, D.C., and Sarah E. Goode, of Chicago, are the first African-American women inventors to receive patents. Signed with an "X", Reed's patent no. 305,474, granted September 23, 1884, is for a dough kneader and roller. Goode's patent for a cabinet bed, patent no. 322,177, is issued on July 14, 1885. Goode, the owner of a Chicago furniture store, invented a folding bed that could be formed into a desk when not in use. Ida B. Wells sues the Chesapeake, Ohio & South Western Railroad Company for its use of segregated "Jim Crow" cars. 1886 Norris Wright Cuney becomes the chairman of the Texas Republican Party, the most powerful role held by any African American in the South during the 19th century. 1887 October 3 – The State Normal School for Colored Students, which would become Florida A&M University, is founded. 1890 Mississippi, with a white Democrat-dominated legislature, passes a new constitution that effectively disfranchises most blacks through voter registration and electoral requirements, e.g., poll taxes, residency tests and literacy tests. This shuts them out of the political process, including service on juries and in local offices. By 1900 two-thirds of the farmers in the bottomlands of the Mississippi Delta are African Americans who cleared and bought land after the Civil War.[23] 1892 Ida B. Wells publishes her pamphlet Southern Horrors: Lynch Law in All Its Phases. 1893 Daniel Hale Williams performed open-heart surgery in 1893 and founded Provident Hospital in Chicago, the first with an interracial staff.[24] 1895 September 18 – Booker T. Washington delivers his Atlanta Compromise address at the Cotton States and International Exposition in Atlanta, Georgia. W. E. B. Du Bois is the first African-American to be awarded a Ph.D by Harvard University. 1896 May 18 – In Plessy v. Ferguson, the U.S. Supreme Court upholds de jure racial segregation of "separate but equal" facilities. (see "Jim Crow laws" for historical discussion). The National Association of Colored Women is formed by the merger of smaller groups. As one of the earliest Black Hebrew Israelites in the United States, William Saunders Crowdy re-establishes the Church of God and Saints of Christ. George Washington Carver is invited by Booker T. Washington to head the Agricultural Department at what would become Tuskegee University. His work would revolutionize farming – he found about 300 uses for peanuts. 1898 Louisiana enacts the first statewide grandfather clause that provides exemption for illiterate whites to voter registration literacy test requirements. In Williams v. Mississippi the U.S. Supreme Court upholds the voter registration and election provisions of Mississippi's constitution because they applied to all citizens. Effectively, however, they disenfranchise blacks and poor whites. The result is that other southern states copy these provisions in their new constitutions and amendments through 1908, disfranchising most African Americans and tens of thousands of poor whites until the 1960s. November 10 – Coup d'état begins in Wilmington, North Carolina, resulting in considerable loss of life and property in the African-American community and the installation of a white supremacist Democratic Party regime. 1899 September 18 – The "Maple Leaf Rag" is an early ragtime composition for piano by Scott Joplin. 20th century[edit] 1900–1924[edit] 1900 Since the Civil War, 30,000 African-American teachers had been trained and put to work in the South. The majority of blacks had become literate.[25] 1901 Booker T. Washington's autobiography Up from Slavery is published. Benjamin Tillman, senator from South Carolina, comments on Theodore Roosevelt's dining with Booker T. Washington: “The action of President Roosevelt in entertaining that nigger will necessitate our killing a thousand niggers in the South before they learn their place again.”[26] 1903 September – W. E. B. Du Bois's article The Talented Tenth published. W. E. B. Du Bois's seminal work The Souls of Black Folk is published. 1904 May 15 – Sigma Pi Phi, the first African-American Greek-letter organization, is founded by African-American men as a professional organization, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Orlando, Florida hires its first black postman. 1905 July 11 – First meeting of the Niagara Movement, an interracial group to work for civil rights.[27] 1906 The Brownsville Affair, which eventually involves President Roosevelt.[27] December 4 – African-American men found Alpha Phi Alpha at Cornell University, the first intercollegiate fraternity for African-American men. 1907 National Primitive Baptist Convention of the U.S.A. formed. 1908 December 26 – Jack Johnson wins the World Heavyweight Title. Alpha Kappa Alpha at Howard University; African-American college women found the first college sorority for African-American women. 1909 February 12 – Planned first meeting of group which would become the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), an interracial group devoted to civil rights. The meeting actually occurs on May 31, but February 12 is normally cited as the NAACP's founding date. May 31 – The National Negro Committee meets and is formed; it will be the precursor to the NAACP. 1910 May 30 – The National Negro Committee chooses "National Association for the Advancement of Colored People" as its organization name. September 29 – Committee on Urban Conditions Among Negroes formed; the next year it will merge with other groups to form the National Urban League. The NAACP begins publishing The Crisis. 1911 January 5 – Kappa Alpha Psi Fraternity, Inc. was founded at Indiana University. November 17 – Omega Psi Phi Fraternity, Inc., which is the first African-American Greek-lettered organization founded at an HBCU (Howard University). 1913 The Moorish Science Temple of America, a religious organization, is founded by Noble Drew Ali (Timothy Drew). January 13 – Delta Sigma Theta Sorority, Inc., was founded at Howard University 1914 January 9 – Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity, Inc. was founded at Howard University by A. Langston Taylor, Leonard F. Morse, and Charles I. Brown Newly elected president Woodrow Wilson orders physical re-segregation of federal workplaces and employment after nearly 50 years of integrated facilities.[28][29][30] 1915 February 8 – The Birth of a Nation is released to film theaters. The NAACP protests in cities across the country, convincing some not to show the film. June 21 – In Guinn v. United States, the U.S. Supreme Court rules against grandfather clauses used to deny blacks the right to vote. September 9 – Professor Carter G. Woodson founds the Association for the Study of African American Life and History in Chicago. A schism from the National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc. forms the National Baptist Convention of America, Inc. 1916 January – Professor Carter Woodson and the Association for the Study of Negro Life and History begins publishing the Journal of Negro History, the first academic journal devoted to the study of African-American history. March 23 – Marcus Garvey arrives in the U.S. (see Garveyism). Los Angeles hires the country's first black female police officer.[citation needed] The Great Migration begins and lasts until 1940. Approximately one and a half million African-Americans move from the Southern United States to the North and Midwest. More than five million migrate in the Second Great Migration from 1940 to 1970, which includes more destinations in California and the West. 1917 May–June – East St. Louis Riot August 23 – Houston Riot In Buchanan v. Warley, the U.S. Supreme Court upholds that racially segregated housing violates the 14th Amendment. 1918 Viola Pettus, an African-American nurse in Marathon, Texas, wins attention for her courageous care of victims of the Spanish Influenza, including members of the Ku Klux Klan. Mary Turner was a 33-year-old lynched in Lowndes County, Georgia who was Eight months pregnant. Turner and her child were murdered after she publicly denounced the extrajudicial killing of her husband by a mob. Her death is considered a stark example of racially motivated mob violence in the American south, and was referenced by the NAACP's anti-lynching campaign of the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s. 1919 Summer – Red Summer of 1919 riots: Chicago, Washington, D.C.; Knoxville, Indianapolis, and elsewhere. September 28 – Omaha Race Riot of 1919, Nebraska. October 1–5 – Elaine Race Riot, Phillips County, Arkansas. Numerous blacks are convicted by an all-white jury or plead guilty. In Moore v. Dempsey (1923), the U.S. Supreme Court overturns six convictions for denial of due process under the Fourteenth Amendment. 1920 February 13 – Negro National League (1920–1931) established. Fritz Pollard and Bobby Marshall are the first two African-American players in the National Football League (NFL). Pollard goes on to become the first African-American coach in the NFL. January 16 – Zeta Phi Beta Sorority, Inc., was founded at Howard University 1921 May 23 – Shuffle Along is the first major African American hit musical on Broadway. May 31 – Tulsa Race Riot, Oklahoma Bessie Coleman becomes the first African American to earn a pilot's license. 1923 Garrett A. Morgan invented and patented the first automatic three-position traffic light.[31] January 1–7 – Rosewood massacre: Six African Americans and two whites die in a week of violence when a white woman in Rosewood, Florida, claims she was beaten and raped by a black man. February 19 – In Moore v. Dempsey, the U.S. Supreme Court holds that mob-dominated trials violate the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Jean Toomer's novel Cane is published. 1924 Knights of Columbus commissions and publishes The Gift of Black Folk: The Negroes in the Making of America by civil rights activist and NAACP cofounder W. E. B. Du Bois as part of the organization's Racial Contribution Series. Spelman Seminary becomes Spelman College. 1925–1949[edit] 1925 Spring – American Negro Labor Congress is founded. August 8 – 35,000 Ku Klux Klan members march in Washington, D.C. (see List of protest marches on Washington, D.C.) Countee Cullen publishes his first collection of poems in Color. Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters is organized. The Harlem Renaissance (also known as the New Negro Movement) is named after the anthology The New Negro, edited by Alain Locke . 1926 The Harlem Globetrotters are founded. Historian Carter G. Woodson proposes Negro History Week. Corrigan v Buckley challenges deed restrictions preventing a white seller from selling to a black buyer. The U.S. Supreme Court rules in favor of Buckley, stating that the 14th Amendment does not apply because Washington, DC is a city and not a state, thereby rendering the Due Process Clause inapplicable. Also, that the Due Process Clause does not apply to private agreements. 1928 Claude McKay's Home to Harlem wins the Harmon Gold Award for Literature. 1929 The League of United Latin American Citizens, the first organization to fight for the civil rights of Latino Americans, is founded in Corpus Christi, Texas. John Hope becomes president of Atlanta University. Graduate classes are offered in the liberal arts, and Atlanta University becomes the first predominantly black university to offer graduate education. Unknown – Hallelujah! is released, one of the first films to star an all-black cast. 1930 August 7 – Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith were African-American men lynched in Marion, Indiana, after being taken from jail and beaten by a mob. They had been arrested that night as suspects in a robbery, murder and rape case. A third African-American suspect, 16-year-old James Cameron, had also been arrested and narrowly escaped being killed by the mob. He later became a civil rights activist.[32] The League of Struggle for Negro Rights is founded in New York City. Jessie Daniel Ames forms the Association of Southern Women for the Prevention of Lynching. She gets 40,000 white women to sign a pledge against lynching and for change in the South.[33] 1931 March 25 – Scottsboro Boys arrested in what would become a nationally controversial case. Walter Francis White becomes the executive secretary of the NAACP. 1932 The Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male begins at Tuskegee University. 1933 Hocutt v. Wilson unsuccessfully challenged segregation in higher education in the United States. 1934 Wallace D. Fard, leader of the Nation of Islam, mysteriously disappears. He is succeeded by Elijah Muhammad. 1935 June 18 – In Murray v. Pearson, Thurgood Marshall and Charles Hamilton Houston of the NAACP successfully argue the landmark case in Maryland to open admissions to the segregated University of Maryland School of Law on the basis of equal protection under the Fourteenth Amendment. Jesse Owens wins gold medals in front of Hitler. 1936 August – American sprinter Jesse Owens wins four gold medals at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin. 1937 6.2.1 General works 6.2.2 Baseball 6.2.3 Boxing 6.2.4 Chess 6.2.5 Olympics Athletes[edit] Baseball[edit] Ryan Braun, outfielder (Milwaukee Brewers) Ike Davis, first baseman (Oakland Athletics) Ian Kinsler, second baseman (Detroit Tigers) Ryan Lavarnway, catcher (Atlanta Braves) Jason Marquis, pitcher (Cincinnati Reds) Joc Pederson, outfielder (Los Angeles Dodgers) Kevin Youkilis, first and third baseman Cal Abrams, US, outfielder[2] Rubén Amaro, Jr., US, outfielder, general manager (Philadelphia Phillies)[2] Morrie Arnovich, US, outfielder, All-Star[2] Brad Ausmus, US, catcher, All-Star, 3x Gold Glove, manager of the Detroit Tigers[2] José Bautista, Dominican-born, pitcher[2] Robert "Bo" Belinsky, U.S., pitcher. Pitched no-hit game as rookie with Los Angeles Angels in 1962.[3] Moe Berg, US, catcher & shortstop, and spy for US in World War II[2] Ron Blomberg, US, DH/first baseman/outfielder, Major League Baseball's first designated hitter[4] Lou Boudreau, US, shortstop, 8x All-Star, batting title, MVP, Baseball Hall of Fame, manager[2] Ralph Branca, US, pitcher, 3x All-Star[5] Ryan Braun, US, outfielder, 2007 Rookie of the Year, home run champion, 5x All-Star, 5x Silver Slugger, 2011 National League MVP (Milwaukee Brewers)[6] Craig Breslow, US, relief pitcher (Boston Red Sox)[2] Mark Clear, US, relief pitcher, 2x All-Star[7] Andy Cohen, US, second baseman, coach Harry Danning, US, catcher, 4x All-Star[2][8] Ike Davis, US, first baseman (Oakland Athletics)[9] Moe Drabowsky, US, pitcher[10] Harry Eisenstat, US, pitcher[11] Mike Epstein, US, first baseman[2] Harry Feldman, US, pitcher[2] Scott Feldman, US, pitcher (Houston Astros)[2] Gavin Fingleson, South African-born Australian, Olympic silver medalist[12] Nate Freiman, US, first baseman (Oakland Athletics)[13][14] Sam Fuld, US, outfielder (Oakland Athletics)[15] Sid Gordon, US, outfielder & third baseman, 2x All-Star[2] John Grabow, US, relief pitcher[2] Shawn Green, US, right fielder, 2x All-Star, Gold Glove, Silver Slugger[2] Hank Greenberg, US, first baseman & outfielder, 5x All-Star, 4x home run champion, 4x RBI leader, 2x MVP, Baseball Hall of Fame[2] Ken Holtzman, US, starting pitcher, 2x All-Star[2] Joe Horlen, US, pitcher, All-Star, ERA leader[2] Gabe Kapler, US, outfielder[2] Ian Kinsler, US, second baseman, 3x All-Star (Detroit Tigers)[16] Sandy Koufax, US, starting pitcher, 6x All-Star, 5x ERA leader, 4x strikeouts leader, 3x Wins leader, 2x W-L% leader, 1 perfect game, MVP, 3x Cy Young Award, Baseball Hall of Fame[2] Barry Latman, US, pitcher[11] Ryan Lavarnway, US, catcher (Atlanta Braves)[17] Al Levine, US, relief pitcher[2] Mike Lieberthal, US, catcher, 2x All-Star, Gold Glove[2] Elliott Maddox, US, outfielder & third baseman[2] Jason Marquis, US, starting pitcher, Silver Slugger, All Star (Cincinnati Reds)[2] Erskine Mayer, US, pitcher[2] Bob Melvin, US, catcher & manager of the Oakland Athletics[18] Jon Moscot, US, pitcher (Cincinnati Reds)[19] Jeff Newman, US, catcher & first baseman, All-Star, manager[2] Joc Pederson, US, outfielder (Los Angeles Dodgers)[20] Barney Pelty, US, pitcher[2] Lipman Pike, US, outfielder, second baseman, & manager, 4x home run champion, RBI leader[2] Kevin Pillar, US, outfielder (Toronto Blue Jays) Aaron Poreda, US, pitcher (Yomiuri Giants)[2] Scott Radinsky, US, relief pitcher[2] Dave Roberts, US, pitcher[2] Saul Rogovin, US, pitcher[2] Al "Flip" Rosen, US, third baseman & first baseman, 4x All-Star, 2x home run champion, 2x RBI leader, MVP[2] Goody Rosen, Canada, outfielder, All-Star[2] Josh Satin, US, second baseman (Cincinnati Reds)[21] Richie Scheinblum, US, outfielder, All-Star[2] Scott Schoeneweis, US, pitcher[2] Michael Schwimer, US, relief pitcher (Toronto Blue Jays)[22] Art Shamsky, US, outfielder & first baseman[2] Larry Sherry, US, relief pitcher[2] Norm Sherry, US, catcher & manager[2] Moe "the Rabbi of Swat" Solomon, US, outfielder[2] George Stone, US, outfielder, 1x batting title[23] Steve Stone, US, starting pitcher, All-Star, Cy Young Award[2] Danny Valencia, US, third baseman (Oakland Athletics)[24] Phil "Mickey" Weintraub, US, first baseman & outfielder Josh Whitesell, US, first baseman (Saraperos de Saltillo)[25] Steve Yeager, US, catcher[2] Kevin Youkilis, US, first baseman, third baseman, & left fielder, 3x All-Star, Gold Glove, Hank Aaron Award[2] Josh Zeid, US, pitcher for the Detroit Tigers Basketball[edit] Omri Casspi Jordan Farmar Gal Mekel Jon Scheyer Sam Balter, US, 5' 10" guard, Olympic champion[8][26] Sue Bird, US & Israel, WNBA 5' 9" point guard, 2x Olympic champion, 4x All-Star (Seattle Storm)[27] David Blatt, US & Israel, Israeli Premier League 6' 3.5" point guard, coached Russia National Basketball Team, Israel's Maccabi Tel Aviv to Euroleague Championship, Euroleague Coach of the Year, 4x Israeli Coach of the Year, Head Coach of Cleveland Cavaliers[28][29] David Blu (formerly "Bluthenthal"), US & Israel, Euroleague 6' 7" forward (Maccabi Tel Aviv)[30] Harry Boykoff, US, NBA 6' 10" center[31] Tal Brody, US & Israel, Euroleague 6' 2" shooting guard[8] Larry Brown, US, ABA 5' 9" point guard, 3x All-Star, 3x assists leader, NCAA National Championship coach (1988), NBA coach, Olympic champion, Hall of Fame[8][26] Omri Casspi, Israel, 6' 9" small forward, drafted in 1st round of 2009 NBA Draft (Sacramento Kings)[32] Shay Doron, Israel & US, WNBA 5' 9" guard (New York Liberty)[33] Lior Eliyahu, Israel, 6' 9" power forward, NBA draft 2006 (Orlando Magic; traded to Houston Rockets), playing in the Euroleague (Hapoel Jerusalem)[34] Jordan Farmar, US, NBA 6' 2" point guard (Los Angeles Clippers)[35] Marty Friedman, US, 5' 7" guard & coach, Hall of Fame[8] Ernie Grunfeld, Romania-born US, NBA 6' 6" guard/forward & GM, Olympic champion[36] Yotam Halperin, Israel, 6' 5" guard, drafted in 2006 NBA draft by Seattle SuperSonics (Hapoel Jerusalem)[34] Sonny Hertzberg, US, NBA 5' 9" point guard, original NY Knickerbocker[37] Art Heyman, US, NBA 6' 5" forward/guard[37] Nat Holman, US, ABL 5' 11" guard & coach, Hall of Fame[8] Red Holzman, US, BAA & NBA 5' 10" guard, 2x All-Star, & NBA coach, NBA Coach of the Year, Hall of Fame[8] Eban Hyams, India-Israel-Australia, 6' 5" guard formerly of the Australian National Basketball League, Israeli Super League, first ever Indian national to play in ULEB competitions[38] Barry Kramer, first team All-American at NYU in 1963 Joel Kramer, US Phoenix Suns 6'7" forward Sylven Landesberg, US, 6' 6" former UVA shooting guard (Maccabi Tel Aviv)[39] Rudy LaRusso, US, NBA 6' 7" forward/center, 5x All-Star[40] Nancy Lieberman, US, WNBA player, general manager, & coach, Olympic silver, Hall of Fame[26][41] Gal Mekel, Israel, NBA 6' 3" point guard (Dallas Mavericks)[42] Bernard Opper, US, NBL and ABL 5' 10" guard, All-American at University of Kentucky Donna Orender (née Geils), US, Women's Pro Basketball League 5' 7" point guard, All-Star, current WNBA president[37] Lennie Rosenbluth, US, NBA 6' 4" forward[36] Danny Schayes, US, NBA 6' 11" center/forward (son of Dolph Schayes)[37] Dolph Schayes, US, NBA 6' 7" forward/center, 3x FT% leader, 1x rebound leader, 12x All-Star, Hall of Fame, & coach (father of Danny Schayes)[8] Ossie Schectman, US, NBA 6' 0" guard, scorer of first NBA basket[36] Doron Sheffer, US (college), Maccabi Tel Aviv,Hapoel Jerusalem Jon Scheyer, US, All-American Duke University 6' 5" shooting guard & point guard (Maccabi Tel Aviv)[43] Barney Sedran, US, Hudson River League & New York State League 5' 4" guard, Hall of Fame[8] Sidney Tannenbaum, US, BAA 6' 0" guard, 2x All-American, left as NYU all-time scorer[8] Alex Tyus, US & Israel, 6' 8" power forward/center (Maccabi Tel Aviv) Neal Walk, US, NBA 6' 10" center[37] Max Zaslofsky, US, NBA 6' 2" guard/forward, 1x FT% leader, 1x points leader, All-Star, ABA coach[8] Bowling[edit] Barry Asher, 10 PBA titles, PBA Hall of Fame[7] Marshall Holman, 22 PBA titles (11th all-time); PBA Hall of Fame[44] Mark Roth, 34 PBA titles (5th all-time); PBA Hall of Fame[45] Boxing[edit] Yuri Foreman Zab Judah Dmitry Salita Barney Aaron (Young), English-born US lightweight, Hall of Fame[46] Abe Attell ("The Little Hebrew"), US, world champion featherweight, Hall of Fame[8] Monte Attell ("The Knob Hill Terror"), US, bantamweight[47] Max Baer ("Madcap Maxie"), US, world champion heavyweight. Wore a Star of David on his trunks; inducted into the International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame. Hall of Fame/[48] Benny Bass ("Little Fish"), US, world champion featherweight & world champion junior lightweight, Hall of Fame[8] Fabrice Benichou, France, world champion super bantamweight[34] Jack Kid Berg (Judah Bergman), England, world champion junior welterweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks, Hall of Fame[8] Maxie Berger, Canada, wore a Star of David on his trunks[49] Samuel Berger, US, Olympic champion heavyweight[8] Jack Bernstein (also "John Dodick", "Kid Murphy", and "Young Murphy"), US, world champion junior lightweight[8] Nathan "Nat" Bor, US, Olympic bronze lightweight[26] Mushy Callahan (Vincente Sheer), US, world champion light welterweight[47] Joe Choynski ("Chrysanthemum Joe"), US, heavyweight, Hall of Fame[8][50] Robert Cohen, French & Algerian, world champion bantamweight[8] Al "Bummy" Davis (Abraham Davidoff), US, welterweight & lightweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks[47] Louis "Red" Deutsch, US, heavyweight, later famous as the proprietor of the Tube Bar in Jersey City, NJ and inspiration for Moe Szyslak on "The Simpsons" Carolina Duer ("The Turk"), Argentine, WBO world champion super flyweight and bantamweight[51] John "Jackie" Fields (Jacob Finkelstein), US, world champion welterweight & Olympic champion featherweight, Hall of Fame[8] Hagar Finer, Israel, WIBF champion bantamweight[52] Yuri Foreman, Belarusian-born Israeli US middleweight and World Boxing Association champion super welterweight[53] György Gedó, Hungary, Olympic champion light flyweight[41] Abe Goldstein, US, world champion bantamweight[54] Ruby Goldstein ("Ruby the Jewel of the Ghetto"), US, welterweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks[8] Roman Greenberg ("The Lion from Zion"), Israel, International Boxing Organization's Intercontinental champion heavyweight[53] Stéphane Haccoun, France, featherweight, super featherweight, and junior lightweight[55][56] Alphonse Halimi ("La Petite Terreur"), France, world champion bantamweight[8] Harry Harris ("The Human Hairpin"), US, world champion bantamweight[8] Gary Jacobs, Scottish, British, Commonwealth, and European (EBU) champion welterweight[57] Ben Jeby (Morris Jebaltowsky), US, world champion middleweight[47] Yoel Judah, US, 3x world champion kickboxer and boxer & trainer[58] Zab Judah ("Super"), US, world champion junior welterweight & world champion welterweight (Converted to Christianity)[58][59][60][61] Louis Kaplan ("Kid Kaplan"), Russian-born US, world champion featherweight, Hall of Fame[8][50] Solly Krieger ("Danny Auerbach"), US, world champion middleweight[8] Julie Kogon US, 1947 New England Lightweight Champion. Inducted into the Connecticut Boxing Hall of Fame. Benny Leonard (Benjamin Leiner; "The Ghetto Wizard"), US, world champion lightweight, Hall of Fame[8] Battling Levinsky (Barney Lebrowitz), US, world champion light heavyweight, Hall of Fame[8] King Levinsky (Harry Kraków), US, heavweight, also known as Kingfish Levinsky[8] Harry Lewis (Harry Besterman), US, world champion welterweight[47] Ted "Kid" Lewis (Gershon Mendeloff), England, world champion welterweight, Hall of Fame[8] Sammy Luftspring, Canada, Canadian champion welterweight, Canada's Sports Hall of Fame[47] Saoul Mamby, US, world champion junior welterweight[47] Al McCoy (Alexander Rudolph), US, world champion middleweight[8] Daniel Mendoza, England, world champion heavyweight, Hall of Fame[8] Jacob Michaelsen, Denmark, Olympic bronze heavyweight[26] Samuel Mosberg, US, Olympic champion lightweight[8] Bob Olin, US, world champion light heavyweight[62] Victor Perez ("Young"), Tunisian, world champion flyweight[8] Harold Reitman ("The Boxing Doctor"), professional heavyweight that fought while working as surgeon, Golden Gloves champion.[63] Charlie Phil Rosenberg ("Charles Green"), US, world champion bantamweight[8] Dana Rosenblatt ("Dangerous"), US, world champion middleweight[64] Maxie Rosenbloom ("Slapsie"), US, world champion light heavyweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks, Hall of Fame[8] Barney Ross (Dov-Ber Rasofsky), US, world champion lightweight & junior welterweight, Hall of Fame[8] Mike Rossman (Michael Albert DiPiano; "The Jewish Bomber"), US, world champion light heavyweight, wore Star of David on trunks[64] Shamil Sabirov, Russia, Olympic champion light flyweight[26] Dmitry Salita ("Star of David"), US, North American Boxing Association champion light welterweight[65] Isadore "Corporal Izzy" Schwartz ("The Ghetto Midget"), US, world champion flyweight[8] Al Singer ("The Bronx Beauty"), US, world champion lightweight[47] "Lefty" Lew Tendler, US, bantamweight, lightweight, and welterweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks, Hall of Fame[8] Sid Terris ("Ghost of the Ghetto"), US, lightweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks[54] Matt Wels, England, champion of Great Britain lightweight and world champion welterweight Canoeing[edit] Jessica Fox Shaun Rubenstein László Fábián, Hungary, sprint canoer, Olympic champion (K-2 10,000 meter), 4x world champion (3x K-2 10,000 meter and 1x K-4 10,000 meter) and one silver (K-4 10,000 meter)[26] Imre Farkas, Hungary, sprint canoer, 2x Olympic bronze (C-2 1,000 and 10,000 meter)[66] Jessica Fox, French-born Australian, slalom canoer, Olympic silver (K-1 slalom), world championships bronze (C-1)[67] Myriam Fox-Jerusalmi, France, slalom canoer, Olympic bronze (K-1 slalom), 5 golds at ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships (2x K-1, 3x K-1 team)[41] Klára Fried-Bánfalvi, Hungary, sprint canoer, Olympic bronze (K-2 500 m), world champion (K-2 500 m)[26] Leonid Geishtor, USSR (Belarus), sprint canoer, Olympic champion (Canadian pairs 1,000-meter)[41] Joe Jacobi, US, slalom canoer, Olympic champion (Canadian slalom pairs)[41] Michael Kolganov, Soviet (Uzbek)-born Israeli, sprint canoer, world champion, Olympic bronze (K-1 500-meter)[41] Anna Pfeffer, Hungary, sprint canoer, Olympic 2x silver (K-2 500 m), bronze (K-1 500 m); world champion (K-2 500 m), silver (K-4 500 m), 2x bronze (K-2 500)[26] Naum Prokupets, Moldovan-born Soviet, sprint canoer, Olympic bronze (C-2 1,000-meter), gold (C-2 10,000-meter) at ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships[41] Leon Rotman, Romanian, sprint canoer, 2x Olympic champion (C-1 10,000 meter, C-1 1,000-meter) and bronze (C-1 1,000-meter), 14 national titles[41] Shaun Rubenstein, South Africa, canoer, World Marathon champion 2006[68] Cricket[edit] Michael Klinger Ben Ashkenazi, Australia (Victorian Bushrangers) Ali Bacher, South Africa, batsman and administrator (relative of Adam Bacher)[69] Mike Barnard, England, cricketer[69] Mark Bott, England, cricketer[70] Stevie Eskinazi, South African born, Australian raised, English wicketkeeper Mark Fuzes. Australian all rounder played for Hong Kong. Father Peter Fuzes kept goal for Australian Soccer team (see)[71] Dennis Gamsy, South Africa, Test wicket-keeper[72] Darren Gerard, England, cricketer[73] Norman Gordon, South Africa, fast bowler[69] Steven Herzberg, English-born Australian, cricketer[74] Sid Kiel, South Africa, opening batsman (Western Province)[75] Michael Klinger, Australia, batsman (Western Warriors)[69] Leonard "Jock" Livingston, Australia, cricketer[69] Bev Lyon, England, cricketer[69] Dar Lyon, England, cricketer (brother of Bev)[69] Greg, Jason, and Lara Molins, two brothers and a cousin from the same Irish family[74] Jon Moss, Australia, allrounder (Victorian Bushrangers)[69] John Raphael, England, batsman[69] Marshall Rosen, NSW Australia, cricketer and selector[76] Lawrence Seeff, South Africa, batsmen[77] Maurice Sievers, Australia, lower order batsman and fast-medium bowler[69] Bensiyon Songavkar, India, cricketer, MVP of 2009 Maccabiah Games cricket tournament[78] Fred Susskind, South Africa, Test batsman[69] Fred Trueman, England, English test fast bowler (a lifelong Christian)[69] Julien Wiener, Australia, Test cricketer[69] Mandy Yachad, South Africa, Test cricketer[69] Equestrian[edit] Margie Goldstein-Engle Robert Dover, US, 4x Olympic bronze, 1x world championship bronze (dressage)[79] Margie Goldstein-Engle, US, world championship silver, Pan American Games gold, silver, and bronze (jumping)[80] Edith Master, US, Olympic bronze (dressage)[26] Fencing[edit] Helene Mayer Soren Thompson Henri Anspach, Belgium (épée & foil), Olympic champion[26] Paul Anspach, Belgium (épée & foil), 2x Olympic champion[26] Norman Armitage (Norman Cohn), US (sabre), 17x US champion, Olympic bronze[26] Albert "Albie" Axelrod, US (foil); Olympic bronze, 4x US champion[8] Péter Bakonyi, Hungary (saber), Olympic 3x bronze[41] Cliff Bayer, US (foil); youngest US champion[37] Albert Bogen (Albert Bógathy), Austria (saber), Olympic silver[41] Tamir Bloom, US (épée); 2x US champion[37] Daniel Bukantz, US (foil); 4x US champion[37] Sergey Sharikov, Russia (saber), 2x Olympic champion, silver, bronze[26] Yves Dreyfus, France (épée), Olympic bronze, French champion[26] Ilona Elek, Hungary (saber), 2x Olympic champion[26] Boaz Ellis, Israel (foil), 5x Israeli champion[34] Siegfried "Fritz" Flesch, Austria (sabre), Olympic bronze[26] Dr. Dezsö Földes, Hungary (saber), 2x Olympic champion[26] Dr. Jenö Fuchs, Hungary (saber), 4x Olympic champion[81] Támas Gábor, Hungary (épée), Olympic champion[8] János Garay, Hungary (saber), Olympic champion, silver, bronze, killed by the Nazis[8] Dr. Oskar Gerde, Hungary (saber), 2x Olympic champion, killed by the Nazis[26] Dr. Sándor Gombos, Hungary (saber), Olympic champion[62] Vadim Gutzeit, Ukraine (saber), Olympic champion[82] Johan Harmenberg, Sweden (épée), Olympic champion[26] Delila Hatuel, Israel (foil), Olympian, ranked # 9 in world[83] Lydia Hatuel-Zuckerman, Israel (foil), 6x Israeli champion[84][85] Dr. Otto Herschmann, Austria (saber), Olympic silver[26] Emily Jacobson, US (saber), NCAA champion[86] Sada Jacobson, US (saber), ranked # 1 in the world, Olympic silver, 2x bronze[86] Allan Jay, British (épée & foil), Olympic 2x silver, world champion[26] Endre Kabos, Hungary (saber), 3x Olympic champion, bronze[26] Roman Kantor, Poland (épée), Nordic champion & Soviet champion, killed by the Nazis[26] Dan Kellner, US (foil), US champion[86] Byron Krieger, US[87] Grigory Kriss, Soviet (épée), Olympic champion, 2x silver[26] Allan Kwartler, US (saber), 3x Pan American Games champion[10] Alexandre Lippmann, France (épée), 2x Olympic champion, 2x silver, bronze[8] Helene Mayer, Germany & US (foil), Olympic champion[26] Ljubco Georgievski ????? ??????????? Kiro Gligorov ???? ???????? Nikola Gruevski ?????? ???????? Gjorge Ivanov ????? ?????? Gordana Jankuloska ??????? ?????????? Zoran Jolevski ????? ???????? Srgjan Kerim ????? ????? Lazar Koliševski ????? ?????????? Hari Kostov ???? ?????? Trifun Kostovski ?????? ????????? Ilinka Mitreva ?????? ??????? Lazar Mojsov ????? ?????? Tito Petkovski ???? ????????? Lui Temelkovski ??? ??????????? Boris Trajkovski ????? ?????????? Vasil Tupurkovski ????? ??????????? Zoran Zaev ????? ???? Partisans World War II freedom fighters edit Mirce Acev ????? ???? Mihajlo Apostolski ????j?? ?????????? Cede Filipovski Dame ???? ?????????? ???? Blagoj Jankov Muceto ?????? ?????? ?????? Orce Nikolov ???? ??????? Strašo Pindžur ?????? ?????? Hristijan Todorovski Karpoš ????????? ?????????? ?????? Revolutionaries edit Yordan Piperkata ?????? ???????? ????????? Goce Delcev ???? ????? Petar Pop Arsov ????? ??? ????? Dame Gruev ???? ????? Jane Sandanski ???? ????????? Dimitar Pop Georgiev Berovski ??????? ??? ???????? ???????? Ilyo Voyvoda ???? ??? ?????????? Pere Tošev ???? ????? Pitu Guli ???? ???? Dimo Hadži Dimov ???? ???? ????? Hristo Uzunov ?????? ?????? Literature edit Gjorgji Abadžiev ????? ??????? Petre M Andreevski ????? ? ?????????? Maja Apostoloska ???? ??????????? Dimitrija Cupovski ????????? ???????? Jordan Hadži Konstantinov Džinot ?????? ???? ???????????? ????? Vasil Iljoski ????? ?????? Slavko Janevski ?????? ???????? Blaže Koneski ????? ??????? Risto Krle ????? ???? Vlado Maleski ????? ??????? Mateja Matevski ?????? ???????? Krste Misirkov ????? ????????? Kole Nedelkovski ???? ??????????? Olivera Nikolova Anton Panov ????? ????? Gjorche Petrov ????? ?????? Vidoe Podgorec ????? ???????? Aleksandar Prokopiev ?????????? ????????? Koco Racin ???? ????? Jovica Tasevski Eternijan ?????? ???????? ????????? Gane Todorovski ???? ?????????? Stevan Ognenovski ?????? ?????????? Music edit Classical music edit Composers edit Atanas Badev ?????? ????? Dimitrije Bužarovski ????????? ?????????? Kiril Makedonski ????? ?????????? Toma Prošev ???? ?????? Todor Skalovski ????? ????????? Stojan Stojkov ?????? ??????? Aleksandar Džambazov ?????????? ???????? Conductors edit Borjan Canev ?????? ????? Instrumentalists edit Pianists Simon Trpceski ????? ???????? Opera singers edit Blagoj Nacoski ?????? ??????? Boris Trajanov ????? ???????? Popular and folk music edit Composers edit Darko Dimitrov ????? ???????? Slave Dimitrov ????? ???????? Jovan Jovanov ????? ??????? Ilija Pejovski ????? ???????? Musicians edit Bodan Arsovski ????? ???????? Goran Trajkoski ????? ????????? Ratko Dautovski ????? ????????? Kiril Džajkovski ????? ????????? Tale Ognenovski ???? ?????????? Vlatko Stefanovski ?????? ??????????? Stevo Teodosievski ????? ???????????? Aleksandra Popovska ?????????? ???????? Singers and Bands edit Lambe Alabakoski ????? ?????????? Anastasia ????????? Arhangel ???????? Kristina Arnaudova ???????? ????????? Kaliopi Bukle ??????? Dani Dimitrovska ???? ??????????? Riste Tevdoski ????? ???????? Karolina Goceva ???????? ?????? Vaska Ilieva ????? ?????? Andrijana Janevska ????????? ???????? Vlado Janevski ????? ???????? Jovan Jovanov ????? ??????? Leb i sol ??? ? ??? Aleksandar Makedonski ?????????? ?????????? Elvir Mekic ????? ????? Mizar ????? Jasmina Mukaetova ??????? ????e???? The Malagasy French Malgache are the ethnic group that forms nearly the entire population of Madagascar They are divided into two subgroups the "Highlander" Merina Sihanaka and Betsileo of the central plateau around Antananarivo Alaotra Ambatondrazaka and Fianarantsoa and the "coastal dwellers" elsewhere in the country This division has its roots in historical patterns of settlement The original Austronesian settlers from Borneo arrived between the third and tenth centuries and established a network of principalities in the Central Highlands region conducive to growing the rice they had carried with them on their outrigger canoes Sometime later a large number of settlers arrived from East Africa and established kingdoms along the relatively unpopulated coastlines The difference in ethnic origins remains somewhat evident between the highland and coastal regions In addition to the ethnic distinction between highland and coastal Malagasy one may speak of a political distinction as well Merina monarchs in the late th and early th century united the Merina principalities and brought the neighboring Betsileo people under their administration first They later extended Merina control over the majority of the coastal areas as well The military resistance and eventual defeat of most of the coastal communities assured their subordinate position vis à vis the Merina Betsileo alliance During the th and th centuries the French colonial administration capitalized on and further exacerbated these political inequities by appropriating existing Merina governmental infrastructure to run their colony This legacy of political inequity dogged the people of Madagascar after gaining independence in candidates ethnic and regional identities have often served to help or hinder their success in democratic elections Within these two broad ethnic and political groupings the Malagasy were historically subdivided into specifically named ethnic groups who were primarily distinguished from one another on the basis of cultural practices These were namely agricultural hunting or fishing practices construction style of dwellings music hair and clothing styles and local customs or taboos the latter known in the Malagasy language as fady citation needed The number of such ethnic groups in Madagascar has been debated The practices that distinguished many of these groups are less prevalent in the st century than they were in the past But many Malagasy are proud to proclaim their association with one or several of these groups as part of their own cultural identity "Highlander" ethnic groups Merina Sihanaka Betsileo Zafimaniry Coastal ethnic groups Antaifasy or Antefasy Antaimoro or Temoro or Antemoro Antaisaka or Antesaka Antambahoaka Antandroy or Tandroy Antankarana Antanosy or Tanosy Academia edit Afifi al Akiti Khasnor Johan historian Khoo Kay Kim Jomo Kwame Sundaram Danny Quah Harith Ahmad Architects edit Main article List of Malaysian architects Artists edit Main article List of Malaysian artists Business edit Tan Sri Syed Mokhtar Al Bukhary born Tan Sri Dato Loh Boon Siew – Tan Sri Jeffrey Cheah Tan Sri William Cheng Dato Choong Chin Liang born Tan Sri Dato Tony Fernandes born Lim Goh Tong – Tan Sri Tiong Hiew King Tan Sri Teh Hong Piow born Chung Keng Quee – Tan Sri Ananda Krishnan born Robert Kuok born Tan Sri Quek Leng Chan born Shoba Purushothaman Shah Hakim Zain Halim Saad Tan Sri Mohd Saleh Sulong Tan Sri Vincent Tan born Lillian Too born Tan Sri Dr Francis Yeoh Tun Daim Zainuddin born Tan Sri Kong Hon Kong Designers edit Bernard Chandran fashion designer Jimmy Choo born shoe designer Poesy Liang born artist writer philanthropist jewellery designer industrial designer interior architect music composer Inventors edit Yi Ren Ng inventor of the Lytro Entertainers edit Yasmin Ahmad – film director Stacy Angie Francissca Peter born Jamal Abdillah born Sudirman Arshad – Loganathan Arumugam died Datuk David Arumugam Alleycats Awal Ashaari Alvin Anthons born Asmawi bin Ani born Ahmad Azhar born Ning Baizura born Kasma Booty died Marion Caunter host of One In A Million and the TV Quickie Ella born Erra Fazira born Sean Ghazi born Fauziah Latiff born Angelica Lee born Daniel Lee Chee Hun born Fish Leong born Sheila Majid born Amy Mastura born Mohamad Nasir Mohamad born Shathiyah Kristian born Meor Aziddin Yusof born Ah Niu born Dayang Nurfaizah born Shanon Shah born Siti Nurhaliza born Misha Omar born Hani Mohsin – Aziz M Osman born Azmyl Yunor born P Ramlee born Aziz Sattar born Fasha Sandha born Ku Nazhatul Shima Ku Kamarazzaman born Nicholas Teo born Pete Teo Penny Tai born Hannah Tan born Jaclyn Victor born Chef Wan Adira Suhaimi Michael Wong born Victor Wong born Dato Michelle Yeoh Hollywood actress born James Wan director of Hollywood films like several Saw films Insidious The Conjuring Fast and Furious born Ziana Zain born Zee Avi Shila Amzah Yunalis Zarai Zamil Idris born Military edit Leftenan Adnan – Warrior from mainland Malaya Antanum Warrior from Sabah Borneo Rentap Warrior from Sarawak Syarif Masahor Warrior from Sarawak Monsopiad Warrior from Sabah Borneo Haji Abdul Rahman Limbong Warrior from Telemong Terengganu Mat Salleh Warrior from Sabah Borneo Rosli Dhobi Warrior from Sarawak Politicians edit Parameswara founder of Sultanate of Malacca Tunku Abdul Rahman Putra Al Haj st Prime Minister of independent Malaya Tun Abdul Razak nd Prime Minister V T Sambanthan Founding Fathers of Malaysia along with Tunku Abdul Rahman and Tan Cheng Lock Tun Dato Sir Tan Cheng Lock Founder of MCA Tun Hussein Onn rd Prime Minister Mahathir Mohammad th Prime Minister Father of Modernisation Abdullah Ahmad Badawi th Prime Minister since Najib Tun Razak Current Prime Minister since Dato Seri Ong Ka Ting Dato Seri Anwar Ibrahim Dato Wan Hisham Wan Salleh Nik Aziz Nik Mat Raja Nong Chik Zainal Abidin Federal Territory and Urban Wellbeing Minister Wan Azizah Wan Ismail Karpal Singh Lim Kit Siang Lim Guan Eng Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah Religious edit Antony Selvanayagam Roman Catholic Bishop of the Diocese of Penang Anthony Soter Fernandez Archbishop Emeritus of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Kuala Lumpur and Bishop Emeritus of the Diocese of Penang Gregory Yong – Second Roman Catholic Archbishop of Singapore Tan Sri Datuk Murphy Nicholas Xavier Pakiam Metropolitan archbishop of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Kuala Lumpur president of the Catholic Bishops Conference of Malaysia Singapore and Brunei and publisher of the Catholic weekly newspaper The Herald Datuk Ng Moon Hing the fourth and current Anglican Bishop of West Malaysia Sportspeople edit Squash edit Datuk Nicol Ann David Ong Beng Hee Azlan Iskandar Low Wee Wern Badminton edit Chan Chong Ming men s doubles Dato Lee Chong Wei Chew Choon Eng men s doubles Wong Choong Hann Chin Eei Hui women s doubles Hafiz Hashim Roslin Hashim Wong Pei Tty women s doubles Choong Tan Fook men s doubles Lee Wan Wah men s doubles Koo Kien Keat men s doubles Tan Boon Heong men s doubles Retired edit Tan Aik Huang Eddy Choong Punch Gunalan Yap Kim Hock Foo Kok Keong Jalani Sidek Misbun Sidek Rashid Sidek Razif Sidek Cheah Soon Kit Lee Wan Wah Football soccer edit Brendan Gan Sydney FC Shaun Maloney Wigan Athletic Akmal Rizal Perak FA Kedah FA RC Strasbourg FCSR Haguenau Norshahrul Idlan Talaha Kelantan FA Khairul Fahmi Che Mat Kelantan FA Mohd Safiq Rahim Selangor FA Mohd Fadzli Saari Selangor FA PBDKT T Team FC SV Wehen Rudie Ramli Selangor FA PKNS F C SV Wehen Mohd Safee Mohd Sali Selangor FA Pelita Jaya Baddrol Bakhtiar Kedah FA Mohd Khyril Muhymeen Zambri Kedah FA Mohd Azmi Muslim Kedah FA Mohd Fadhli Mohd Shas Harimau Muda A FC ViOn Zlaté Moravce Mohd Irfan Fazail Harimau Muda A FC ViOn Zlaté Moravce Wan Zack Haikal Wan Noor Harimau Muda A FC ViOn Zlaté Moravce F C Ryukyu Nazirul Naim Che Hashim Harimau Muda A F C Ryukyu Khairul Izuan Abdullah Sarawak FA Persibo Bojonegoro PDRM FA Stanley Bernard Stephen Samuel Sabah FA Sporting Clube de Goa Nazmi Faiz Harimau Muda A SC Beira Mar Ahmad Fakri Saarani Perlis FA Atlético S C Chun Keng Hong Penang FA Chanthaburi F C Retired edit Serbegeth Singh owner founder of MyTeam Blackburn Rovers F C Global dvisor Mokhtar Dahari former Selangor FA and Malaysian player Lim Teong Kim former Hertha BSC player