storybooks were published by the Little Golden Book company including a few episode adaptations and some original stories Lost in the Fun House and Happy Birthday Babs Tiny Toon Adventures also had a comic book series made by Warner Bros and DC The characters also made occasional cameo appearances in the Animaniacs Freakazoid and Pinky and the Brain comic books citation needed Toys and video games edit Main article List of Tiny Toon Adventures video games Since its debut numerous video games based on Tiny Toons have been released There have been no less than nine titles based on the series released after its original television run and as recently as Many companies have held the development and publishing rights for the games including Konami during the s Atari NewKidCo Conspiracy Games Warthog Terraglyph Interactive Studios and Treasure Toys for the series included plush dolls and plastic figures primarily made by Playskool Home video edit Tiny Toon Adventures How I Spent My Vacation was released on DVD on August There are currently no plans to release the two specials Spring Break and Night Ghoulery on DVD In the early to mid s Warner Bros had released several videos including Tiny Toon Adventures How I Spent My Vacation a direct to video release which later aired as a four part episode Best of Buster and Babs Two Tone Town Tiny Toon Big Adventures Tiny Toon Island Adventures Tiny Toon Adventures Music TV Tiny Toon Fiendishly Funny Adventures Tiny Toon Night Ghoulery and Tiny Toons It s a Wonderful Christmas Special DVD name Ep Release date Special Features Notes

Season Volume July From Looney Tunes to Tiny Toons A Wacky Evolution featurette Was released concurrently with the first season of Freakazoid "The Looney Beginning" episode is uncut on the set Season Volume April None aside from trailers Was released concurrently with the second season of Freakazoid Two episodes are edited "Tiny Toons Music Television" a phone number gag removed and "Son of the Wacko World of Sports" wraparounds and title cards removed citation needed Volume Crazy Crew Rescues January None aside from trailers The previously banned episode "Elephant Issues" is included in this set Initially when the set was announced the content list did not contain the episode due to its controversial "One Beer" segment Volume Looney Links May None aside from trailers The original release contained a glitch which Warner Bros fixed by the end of July Also "Best of Buster Day" is missing its second wraparound scene citation needed History edit Preproduction edit According to writer Paul Dini Tiny Toons originated as an idea by Terry Semel then the president of Warner Bros who wanted to "inject new life into the Warner Bros Animation department " and at the same time create a series with junior versions of Looney Tunes characters Semel proposed that the new series would be a show based on Looney Tunes where the characters were either young versions of the original Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies characters or new characters as the offsprings of the original characters The idea of a series with the basis of younger versions of famous characters was common at the time the era in which Tiny Toons was produced for had such cartoons as Muppet Babies A Pup Named Scooby Doo Tom Jerry Kids and The Flintstones Kids Warner Bros chose to do the same because Spielberg wanted to make a series similar to Looney Tunes as series producer show runner Tom Ruegger explained "Well I think in Warner Bros case they had the opportunity to work with Steven Spielberg on a project But he didn t want to just work on characters that Chuck Jones Friz Freleng Bob McKimson and Bob Clampett made famous and created He wanted to be involved with the creation of some new characters " The result was a series similar to Looney Tunes without the use of the same characters In the Warner Bros Animation studio approached Steven Spielberg to collaborate with Semel and Warner Bros head of licensing Dan Romanelli on Semel s ideas They eventually decided that the new characters would be similar to the Looney Tunes characters with no direct relation However Tiny Toons did not go into production then nor was it even planned to be made for television the series initially was to be a theatrical feature length film In December Tiny Toons was changed from a film to a television series with Jean MacCurdy overseeing production of the first episodes MacCurdy said that Tiny Toons was changed to a television series to "reach a broader audience" For the series MacCurdy hired Tom Ruegger who previously wrote cartoons for Filmation and Hanna Barbera to be a producer In January Ruegger and writer Wayne Kaatz began developing the characters and the setting of "Acme Acres" with Spielberg In January Warner Bros Animation was choosing its voice actors from over auditions and putting together its person production staff In April full production of series episodes began with five overseas animation houses and a total budget of million The first episodes of the series aired in syndication on stations beginning in September During that time Tiny Toons was a huge success and got higher ratings than its Disney Afternoon competitors in some affiliates After a successful run in syndication Fox got the rights for season Production of the series halted in late to make way for Animaniacs to air the following year Post series syndication edit Tiny Toon Adventures along with Animaniacs continued to rerun in syndication through the s into the mid s decade after production of new episodes ceased In the US the series re ran on Nickelodeon from – and again from – and also aired on Kids WB from – Cartoon Network from – and finally on Nicktoons from – On October the series aired on broadcast television once again on Vortexx with the special "Tiny Toons Night Ghoulery" and again on November The series began airing re runs on the Hub Network on July Tiny Toon Adventures was one of the few shows carried over when the Hub Network was re branded as the Discovery Family Channel on October Discovery Family stopped airing reruns of Tiny Toon Adventures in early Tiny Toon Adventures returned to Discovery Family on June but was removed again shortly after In Canada the series first aired on some CTV affiliate stations across the country It had also aired on YTV in – and on Teletoon – and returned on September In the UK the series aired in reruns on Cartoon Network from – Boomerang from and again one more time on December with the episode "It s a Wonderful Tiny Toons Christmas Special" and Cartoonito from present In Australia the series re ran on Cartoon Network from to and on GO from to Dead Heat Arthur P Loudermilk Mark Goldblatt Catchfire Mr Avoca Dennis Hopper Edward Scissorhands The Inventor Tim Burton The Heart of Justice TV movie last screen appearance Reggie Shaw Bruno Barreto The Thief and the Cobbler Zig Zag the Grand Vizier voice only recorded Richard Williams Theatre edit Vincent Price appearing on Broadway as Mr Manningham in Angel Street a role he would portray for three years between and Year Title Role Venue Run Victoria Regina Prince Albert Broadhurst Theatre December June August June The Lady Has A Heart Jean Longacre Theatre September December The Shoemaker s Holiday Master Hammon Mercury Theatre January National Theatre February Heartbreak House Hector Hushabye Mercury Theatre April June Outward Bound Rev William Duke Playhouse Theatre December July Angel Street Mr Manningham John Golden Theatre December – September Bijou Theatre October December Yours A Lincoln Lincoln Shubert Theatre July July Richard III Duke of Buckingham City Centre December December Black Eyed Susan Dr Nicholas Marsh Playhouse Theatre New York December December Darling of the Day Priam Farll George Abbott Theatre January February Diversions and Delights Oscar Wilde Eugene O Neill Theatre April April Television edit Year Program Role Episode First aired A Christmas Carol Narrator December Alfred Hitchcock Presents Charles Courtney Appeared in the episode "The Perfect Crime" October Have Gun – Will Travel Charles Matthews Othello Episode "The Moor s Revenge" December Batman Egghead Various episodes F Troop Count Sfoza "V is for Vampire" February Get Smart Dr Jarvis Pym "Is This Trip Necessary " December Mod Squad John Wells Wentworth "A Time of Hyacinths" December The Hilarious House of Frightenstein Himself All episodes The Brady Bunch Professor Hubert Whitehead "Pass the Tabu" "The Tiki Caves" episodes September October Columbo David Lang "Lovely but Lethal" September The Bionic Woman Manfred Cyrus Carstairs "Black Magic" Season Episode The Muppet Show Himself One episode January The Love Boat The Amazing Alonzo "Ship of Ghouls" Season Episode October Time Express Jason Winters Lead in series four episodes April Faerie Tale Theatre Magic Mirror Episode "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs" The Ghosts of Scooby Doo Vincent Van Ghoul voice Animated series Tiny Toon Adventures Edgar Allan Poe Episode How Sweetie It Is November Harry Carey Jr as Joshua Brackett Frank Grimes as Mr Beckwith Margaret Ladd as Young Libby Tisha Sterling as Young Tisha Mary Steenburgen as Young Sarah Frank Pitkin as Old Randall Mike Bush as Young Randall Production edit The film s producer Mike Kaplan saw the play performed by the Trinity Repertory Company while he was visiting Rhode Island on family business Kaplan who had met Lillian Gish many years earlier when he was a publicist involved in The Comedians decided immediately that the role of Sarah Webber was a role that would introduce new generations of filmgoers to the great talent of the "First Lady of American Film" who had begun her film career in As opposed to the original stage production the movie made it possible to showcase stars who were the age peers of the characters Actors and actresses of a certain age and stature were contacted to see whether they were both interested in and physically capable of playing the roles Many screen greats were approached to play a role but demurred because they suffered from various infirmities e g Shirley Booth Barbara Stanwyck Fred Astaire and Paul Henreid Lillian and Davis themselves were somewhat infirmed — Bette had recently recovered from several strokes which inhibited movement on the left side of her body and Gish was somewhat hard of hearing Other greats turned down the producers overtures for other reasons e g Joel McCrea Frances Dee Katharine Hepburn and John Gielgud Even Davis and Gish


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carmel-nougat carmen-blonde carmen-de-la-torre carmen-moore carmen-rose carol-connors carol-cross carol-cummings carole-dubois carole-gire carole-pierac carol-titian carolyn-connoly carolyn-monroe carrie-cruise cassandra-leigh cassidy cassie-courtland cataline-bullock catherine-count catherine-crystal catherine-ringer catherine-tailleferre cathy-delorme cathy-menard cathy-stewart celeste-fox celine-gallone chanel-preston chanel-price chantal-virapin chanta-rose chantelle-stevens charisma charisma-cole charlie-latour charlie-waters charlotte-de-castille charmane-star chasey-lain chayse-manhattan chaz-vincent chelsea-sinclaire chennin-blanc cheri-janvier cheri-taylor cherry-hill chessie-moore cheyenne-hunter cheyenne-silver china-lee china-leigh china-moon chloe-cruize chloe-dior chloe-kez chloe-stevens chris-collins chris-jordan chris-petersen chrissie-beauchamp christa-abel christa-ludwig christie-ford christi-lake christina-berg christina-blond christina-evol christina-skye christine-black christine-chavert christine-neona christine-rigoler christy-canyon cicciolina cindi-stephens cindy-carver cindy-crawford cindy-more cindy-shepard cindy-wong cinthya-marinho clair-dia claire-robbins claude-janna claudia-jackson claudia-jamsson claudia-mehringer claudia-nero claudia-van-statt claudia-zante claudine-beccarie clea-carson cleo-nichole cleo-patra cody-lane cody-love cody-nicole coffee-brown colleen-brennan connie-bennett connie-peterson constance-money copper-penny coreena corey-everson corinne-lemoine corneliah cory-everson cory-wolf courtney courtney-cummz courtney-james cris-cassidy crissy-moran cris-taliana crystal-breeze crystal-dawn crystal-holland crystal-knight crystal-lake crystal-lovin crystal-sync csilla-kalnay cuban-bee cynara-fox cyndee-summers cynthia-black cynthia-brooks cynthia-hammers cynthia-lavigne dagmar-lost daisy-layne dallas-miko dana-dylan dana-lynn danica-rhea daniela-nanou daniela-schiffer daniele-troeger daniella daniella-schiffer danielle danielle-foxxx danielle-rodgers danny-ricci danyel-cheeks daphne daphne-rosen darby-lloyd-rains darla-crane darla-delovely davia-ardell dayton-rain debbie-northrup debbie-revenge debbie-van-gils debi-diamond debi-jointed debra-lynn deidra-hopkins deidre-holland delania-raffino delia-moore delphine-thail delta-force delta-white demi-moor denice-klarskov denise-derringer denise-dior denise-sloan desiree-cousteau desiree-foxx desiree-lane desiree-west deva-station devin-devasquez devinn-lane devon-shire dia diana-holt diana-kisabonyi diana-siefert diana-stevenson diane-dubois diane-richards diane-sloan diane-suresne dido-angel dillan-lauren dina-deville dina-jewel dina-pearl ditty-blue diva divinity-love djiana dolly-darkley dominique dominique-dewitt dominique-saint-claire donna-hart donna-marie dorle-buchner dorothy-lemay dorothy-onan drea drimla dru-berrymore dusty-rose dyanna-lauren ebony-ayes edina-blond edita-ungerova edwige-faillel eileen-wells elaine-southern elena-berkova elena-maria-ricci eleonore-melzer elisabeth-bure elis-black elise elise-di-medici elle-devyne elle-rio elodie-delage elsa-maroussia elza-brown emili-doll emily-evermoore emily-george emily-jewel emmanuelle-pareze envy-mi erica-boyer erica-eaton erica-havens erica-idol erica-lauren erika-bella erika-cool erika-heaven erika-lockett esme-monroe eva-allen eva-angel eva-dionisio eva-gross eva-kleber eva-lux eva-uettori eve-laurence evelyne-lang evie-delatosso fabiana-venturi faith-stevens fallon fanny-garreau fanny-steel faye-runaway flame flick-shagwell flore-soller flower france-lomay france-quenie francoise frankie-leigh gabriella gabriella-mirelba gabriella-vincze gail-force gail-palmer gail-sterling georgette-saunders georgia-peach georgina-spelvin gia-givanna gianna-lynn gili-sky gina-carrera gina-gianetti gina-janssen gina-lee gina-martell gina-valentino ginger-jay ginger-lee ginger-lynn ginny-noack giovanna gisela-schwarz giselle-monet gladys-laroche gloria-leonard 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moxxie-maddron mulani-rivera mysti-may nadege-arnaud nadia-styles nadine-bronx nadine-proutnal nadine-roussial nadi-phuket nanci-suiter nancy-hoffman nancy-vee natacha-delyro natalia-wood natalli-diangelo natascha-throat natasha-skyler naudia-nyce nessa-devil nessy-grant nesty nicki-hunter nicky-reed nicole-berg nicole-bernard nicole-black nicole-grey nicole-london nicole-parks nicole-scott nicole-taylor nicolette-fauludi nicole-west nika-blond nika-mamic niki-cole nikita-love nikita-rush nikki-charm nikki-grand nikki-king nikki-knight nikki-randall nikki-rhodes nikki-santana nikki-steele nikki-wilde niko nina-cherry nina-deponca nina-hartley nina-preta oana-efria obaya-roberts olesja-derevko olga-cabaeva olga-conti olga-pechova olga-petrova olivia-alize olivia-del-rio olivia-flores olivia-la-roche olivia-outre ophelia-tozzi orchidea-keresztes orsolya-blonde paige-turner paisley-hunter pamela-bocchi pamela-jennings pamela-mann pamela-stanford pamela-stealt pandora paola-albini pascale-vital pat-manning pat-rhea patricia-dale patricia-diamond patricia-kennedy patricia-rhomberg patrizia-predan patti-cakes patti-petite paula-brasile paula-harlow paula-morton paula-price paula-winters pauline-teutscher penelope-pumpkins penelope-valentin petra-hermanova petra-lamas peyton-lafferty phaedra-grant pia-snow piper-fawn pipi-anderson porsche-lynn porsha-carrera precious-silver priscillia-lenn purple-passion queeny-love rachel-ashley rachel-love rachel-luv rachel-roxxx rachel-ryan rachel-ryder racquel-darrian rane-revere raven reagan-maddux rebecca-bardoux regan-anthony regine-bardot regula-mertens reina-leone reka-gabor renae-cruz renee-foxx renee-lovins renee-morgan renee-perez renee-summers renee-tiffany rhonda-jo-petty rikki-blake riley-ray rio-mariah rita-ricardo roberta-gemma roberta-pedon robin-byrd robin-cannes robin-everett robin-sane rochell-starr rosa-lee-kimball rosemarie roxanne-blaze roxanne-hall roxanne-rollan ruby-richards sabina-k sabre sabrina-chimaera sabrina-dawn sabrina-jade sabrina-johnson sabrina-love-cox sabrina-mastrolorenzi sabrina-rose sabrina-scott sabrina-summers sacha-davril sahara sahara-sands sai-tai-tiger samantha-fox samantha-ryan samantha-sterlyng samantha-strong samueline-de-la-rosa sandra-cardinale sandra-de-marco sandra-kalermen sandra-russo sandy-lee sandy-pinney sandy-reed sandy-samuel sandy-style sandy-summers sara-brandy-canyon sara-faye sarah-bernard sarah-cabrera sarah-hevyn sarah-mills sarah-shine sara-sloane sasha sasha-hollander sasha-ligaya sasha-rose satine-phoenix satin-summer savannah-stern savanna-jane scarlet-scarleau scarlet-windsor seka selena serena serena-south severine-amoux shana-evans shanna-mccullough shannon-kelly shannon-rush shantell-day sharon-da-vale sharon-kane sharon-mitchell shaun-michelle shawna-sexton shawnee-cates shay-hendrix shayne-ryder sheena-horne sheer-delight shelby-star shelby-stevens shelly-berlin shelly-lyons sheri-st-clair sheyla-cats shonna-lynn shyla-foxxx shy-love sierra-sinn sierra-skye sigrun-theil silver-starr silvia-bella silvia-saint silvie-de-lux silvy-taylor simone-west sindee-coxx sindy-lange sindy-shy siobhan-hunter skylar-knight skylar-price skyler-dupree smokie-flame smoking-mary-jane solange-shannon sonya-summers sophia-santi sophie-call sophie-duflot sophie-evans sophie-guers stacey-donovan stacy-lords stacy-moran stacy-nichols stacy-silver stacy-thorn starla-fox starr-wood stefania-bruni stella-virgin stephanie-duvalle stephanie-rage stephanie-renee stevie-taylor summer-knight summer-rose sunny-day sunset-thomas sunshine-seiber susan-hart susanne-brend susan-nero susi-hotkiss suzanne-mcbain suzan-nielsen suzie-bartlett suzie-carina suzi-sparks sweet-nice sweety-pie sybille-rossani sylvia-benedict sylvia-bourdon sylvia-brand sylvia-engelmann syreeta-taylor syren-de-mer syvette szabina-black szilvia-lauren tai-ellis taija-rae taisa-banx talia-james tamara-lee tamara-longley tamara-n-joy tamara-west tami-white tammy tammy-lee tammy-reynolds tania-lorenzo tantala-ray tanya-danielle tanya-fox tanya-foxx tanya-lawson tanya-valis tara-aire tasha-voux tatjana-belousova tatjana-skomorokhova tawnee-lee tawny-pearl tayla-rox taylor-wane teddi-austin teddi-barrett tera-bond tera-heart tera-joy teresa-may teresa-orlowski teri-diver teri-weigel terri-dolan terri-hall tess-ferre tess-newheart thais-vieira tia-cherry tianna tiara tiffany-blake tiffany-clark tiffany-duponte tiffany-rayne tiffany-rousso tiffany-storm tiffany-towers tiffany-tyler tiger-lily tigr timea-vagvoelgyi tina-blair tina-burner tina-evil tina-gabriel tina-loren tina-marie tina-russell tish-ambrose tommi-rose tonisha-mills topsy-curvey tori-secrets tori-sinclair tori-welles tracey-adams traci-lords traci-topps traci-winn tracy-duzit tracy-love tracy-williams tricia-devereaux tricia-yen trinity-loren trisha-rey trista-post trixie-tyler ultramax ursula-gaussmann ursula-moore uschi-karnat valentina valerie-leveau valery-hilton vanessa-chase vanessa-del-rio vanessa-michaels vanessa-ozdanic vanilla-deville velvet-summers veri-knotty veronica-dol veronica-hart veronica-hill veronica-rayne veronica-sage veronika-vanoza via-paxton vicky-lindsay vicky-vicci victoria-evans victoria-gold victoria-knight victoria-luna victoria-paris victoria-slick victoria-zdrok viper virginie-caprice vivian-valentine vivien-martines wendi-white wendy-divine whitney-banks whitney-fears whitney-wonders wonder-tracey wow-nikki xanthia-berstein yasmine-fitzgerald yelena-shieffer yvonne-green zara-whites zsanett-egerhazi zuzie-boobies

turned down the parts more than once before being persuaded to star in the film This film marks a reunion between Bette Davis and Vincent Price after years having last appeared on screen together in The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex Gish and Bette did not get along during the filming — Davis demanded and received top billing on the picture — an act of commercial aggression Gish found appalling Lillian remarked of it "Oh dear I just can t deal with that sort of thing I don t care what they do with my name If they leave it off so much the better It s the work I love not the glory " Gish recalled that Davis rarely spoke to her or looked at her except when the script required Though Lillian was hurt she was sympathetic due to Bette s illness "That face Have you ever seen such a tragic face Poor woman How she must be suffering I don t think it s right to judge a person like that We must bear and forbear " For her part Davis was frustrated with Gish missing her cues “Miss Gish was stone deaf She couldn t have heard the cues if I d shouted them through a bullhorn ” However Gish admitted she actually had little trouble hearing her cues but invented a subtle version of the silent treatment due to Davis s mistreatment of her When Bette spoke a line Lillian would often look puzzled and gently protest "I just can t hear what she s saying " Whereupon while Bette sat seething Anderson would repeat Bette s line in a ringing voice and Lillian would instantly pick up her cue and continue the scene Berry Lindsay Anderson the director the cinematographer a location scout and Kaplan traveled by water taxi to several islands in Casco Bay searching for a location that would provide the necessary ambiance and ocean vistas for the film In the end the film was shot on Cliff Island a few miles down the Bay from the site of Berry s family cottage on Peaks Island from where in fact the characters and story were drawn The film s premiere in New York City on October was followed a few weeks later by a State of Maine premiere in Portland Maine which was attended by both Berry and Kaplan Reception edit Reviews for The Whales of August were mixed to positive Rotten Tomatoes that out of critics of them gave the film a positive review with an average score of out of Roger Ebert gave the film out of stars giving an opinion that the film was like no other of Lindsay Anderson s films he directed before although Ebert thought it was not one of Anderson s greatest films Although the film starred two preeminent Old Hollywood actresses in what would be near to their final film roles it was not a substantial commercial success Upon its release it was widely tipped that either Davis or Gish would be rewarded if not for their performances in this film but for their longevity with Academy Award nominations but neither actress was nominated Sothern received the only Academy Award nomination of her career in the category of Best Supporting Actress Many resented Gish not being nomination as her performance was received especially glowingly — winning the her the National Board of Review Award for Best Actress The film was screened out of competition at the Cannes Film Festival and Lillian got a minute standing ovation The film proved immensely popular in Tokyo running for a full year there David Berry authorized several stage productions in Japan after the film premiered in Tokyo in the most recent being in Authorized stage productions have been presented overseas in several countries including Russia Greece and Great Britain Home media edit The film did well on VHS See also edit Lillian Gish filmography Vincent Price filmography Bette Davis filmography All This and Heaven Too The Letter The Little Foxes The Great Lie The Man Who Came to Dinner In This Our Life Now Voyager Watch on the Rhine Mr Skeffington A Stolen Life All About Eve The Star The Virgin Queen The Catered Affair Pocketful of Miracles What Ever Happened to Baby Jane Hush… Hush Sweet Charlotte Dead Ringer The Nanny Death on the Nile Strangers The Story of a Mother and Daughter The Whales of August Evolution of life Predicted future Name and etymology Composition and structure Shape Chemical composition Internal structure Heat Tectonic plates Surface Hydrosphere Atmosphere Weather and climate Upper atmosphere Magnetic field Magnetosphere Orbit and rotation Rotation Orbit Axial tilt and seasons Habitability Biosphere Natural resources and land use Natural and environmental hazards Human geography Moon Asteroids and artificial satellites Cultural and historical viewpoint See also Notes References Further reading External links ChronologyFormationMain article History of Earth Artist s impression of the early Solar System s planetary diskThe earliest material found in the Solar System is dated to ± billion years ago Gya By ± Gya the primordial Earth had formed The formation and evolution of the Solar System bodies occurred along with those of the Sun In theory a solar nebula partitions a volume out of a molecular cloud by gravitational collapse which begins to spin and flatten into a circumstellar disk and then the planets grow out of that along with the Sun A nebula contains gas ice grains and dust including primordial nuclides In nebular theory planetesimals form by accretion The assembly of the primordial Earth proceeded for – Ma The process that led to the formation of the Moon approximately billion years ago is the subject of ongoing research The working hypothesis is that it formed by accretion from material loosed from Earth after a Mars sized object named Theia impacted with Earth In this scenario the mass of Theia was of that of Earth it impacted Earth with a glancing blow and some of its mass merged with Earth Between approximately and Gya numerous asteroid impacts during the Late Heavy Bombardment caused significant changes to the greater surface environment of the Moon and by inference to Earth Geological historyMain article Geological history of Earth Earth s atmosphere and oceans formed by volcanic activity and outgassing that included water vapor The origin of the world s oceans was condensation augmented by water and ice delivered by asteroids protoplanets and comets In this model atmospheric greenhouse gases kept the oceans from freezing when the newly forming Sun had only of its current luminosity By Gya Earth s magnetic field was established which helped prevent the atmosphere from being stripped away by the solar wind A crust formed when the molten outer layer of Earth cooled to form a solid as the accumulated water vapor began to act in the atmosphere The two models that explain land mass propose either a steady growth to the present day forms or more likely a rapid growth early in Earth history followed by a long term steady continental area Continents formed by plate tectonics a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from Earth s interior On time scales lasting hundreds of millions of years the supercontinents have formed and broken up three times Roughly mya million years ago one of the earliest known supercontinents Rodinia began to break apart The continents later recombined to form Pannotia – mya then finally Pangaea which also broke apart mya The present pattern of ice ages began about mya and then intensified during the Pleistocene about mya High latitude regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw repeating every – years The last continental glaciation ended years ago Evolution of lifeMain article Evolutionary history of life Speculative phylogenetic tree of life on Earth based on rRNA analysisHighly energetic chemical reactions are thought to have produced self–replicating molecules around four billion years ago This was followed a half billion years later by the last common ancestor of all life The development of photosynthesis allowed the Sun s energy to be harvested directly by life forms the resultant molecular oxygen O accumulated in the atmosphere and due to interaction with ultraviolet solar radiation formed a layer of protective ozone O in the upper atmosphere The incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the development of complex cells called eukaryotes True multicellular organisms formed as cells within colonies became increasingly specialized Aided by the absorption of harmful ultraviolet radiation by the ozone layer life colonized Earth s surface The earliest fossil evidence for life is biogenic graphite found in billion year old metasedimentary rocks in Western Greenland and microbial mat fossils found in billion year old sandstone in Western Australia Since the s it has been hypothesized that severe glacial action between and mya during the Neoproterozoic covered much of Earth in ice This hypothesis has been termed Snowball Earth and it is of particular interest because it preceded the Cambrian explosion when multicellular life forms began to proliferate Following the Cambrian explosion about mya there have been five major mass extinctions The most recent such event was mya when an asteroid impact triggered the extinction of the non avian dinosaurs and other large reptiles but spared some small animals such as mammals which then resembled shrews Over the past Ma mammalian life has diversified and several million years ago an African ape like animal such as Orrorin tugenensis gained the ability to stand upright This facilitated tool use and encouraged communication that provided the nutrition and stimulation needed for a larger brain which allowed the evolution of the human race The development of agriculture and then civilization led to humans having an influence on Earth and the nature and quantity of other life forms as no other species ever has Predicted futureMain article Future of the Earth See also Global catastrophic risk Estimates on how much longer Earth will be able to continue to support life range from million years Myr to as long as billion years Gyr Earth s long term future is closely tied to that of the Sun As a result of the steady accumulation of helium at the Sun s core the Sun s total luminosity will slowly increase The luminosity of the Sun will grow by over the next Ga and by over the next Ga Climate models indicate that the rise in radiation reaching Earth is likely to have dire consequences including the loss of the oceans Earth s increasing surface temperature will accelerate the inorganic CO cycle reducing its concentration to levels lethally low for plants ppm for C photosynthesis in approximately – Ma The lack of vegetation will result in the loss of oxygen in the atmosphere so animal life will become extinct within several million more years After another billion years all surface water will have disappeared and the mean global temperature will reach °C °F Earth is expected to be effectively habitable for about another Ma from that point although this may be extended up to Ga if the nitrogen is removed from the atmosphere Even if the Sun were eternal and stable of the water in the modern oceans will descend to the mantle in one billion years due to reduced steam venting from mid ocean ridges Life cycle of the Sun The Sun will evolve to become a red giant in about Ga Models predict that the Sun will expand to roughly AU km which is about times its present radius Earth s fate is less clear As a red giant the Sun will lose roughly of its mass so without tidal effects Earth will move to an orbit AU km from the Sun when it reaches its maximum radius Earth was therefore once expected to escape envelopment by the expanded Sun s outer atmosphere though most if not all remaining life would have been destroyed by the Sun s increased luminosity peaking at about times its present level A simulation indicates that Earth s orbit will decay due to tidal effects and drag causing it to enter the red giant Sun s atmosphere and be vaporized Name and etymologyThe modern English word Earth developed from a wide variety of Middle English forms n which derived from an Old English noun most often spelled eorðe It has cognates in every Germanic language and their proto Germanic root has been reconstructed as erþo In its earliest appearances eorðe was already being used to translate the many senses of Latin terra and Greek ge the ground n its soil n dry land n the human world n the surface of the world including the sea n and the globe itself n As with Terra and Gaia Earth was a personified goddess in Germanic paganism the Angles were listed by Tacitus as among the devotees of Nerthus and later Norse mythology included Jörð a giantess often given as the mother of Thor Originally earth was written in lowercase and from early Middle English its definite sense as the globe was expressed as the earth By early Modern English many nouns were capitalized and the earth became and often remained the Earth particularly when referenced along with other heavenly bodies More recently the name is sometimes simply given as Earth by analogy with the names of the other planets House styles now vary Oxford spelling recognizes the lowercase form as the most common with the capitalized form an acceptable variant Another convention capitalizes Earth when appearing as a name e g Earth s atmosphere but writes it in lowercase when preceded by the e g the atmosphere of the earth It almost always appears in lowercase in colloquial expressions such as what on earth are you doing Composition and structureShapeMain article Figure of the Earth World map color coded by relative height The summit of Chimborazo in Ecuador is the point on Earth s surface farthest from its center The shape of Earth approximates an oblate spheroid a sphere flattened along the axis from pole to pole such that there is a bulge around the equator This bulge results from the rotation of Earth and causes the diameter at the equator to be kilometres mi larger than the pole to pole diameter Thus the point on the surface farthest from Earth s center of mass is the summit of the equatorial Chimborazo volcano in Ecuador The average diameter of the reference spheroid is about kilometres mi which is approximately km p because the meter was originally defined as of the distance from the equator to the North Pole through Paris France Local topography deviates from this idealized spheroid although on a global scale these deviations are small compared to Earth s radius The maximum deviation of only is at the Mariana Trench metres ft below local sea level whereas Mount Everest metres ft above local sea level represents a deviation of If Earth were shrunk to the size of a cue ball some areas of Earth such as mountain ranges and oceanic trenches would feel like small imperfections whereas much of the planet including the Great Plains and the abyssal plains would actually feel smoother than a cue ball Chemical composition of the crust Compound Formula Composition Continental Oceanic silica SiO alumina Al O lime CaO magnesia MgO iron II oxide FeO sodium oxide Na O potassium oxide K O iron III oxide Fe O water H O carbon dioxide CO titanium dioxide TiO phosphorus pentoxide P O Total Chemical compositionSee also Abundance of elements on Earth Earth s mass is approximately × kg yg It is composed mostly of iron oxygen silicon magnesium sulfur nickel calcium and aluminium with the remaining consisting of trace amounts of other elements Due to mass segregation the core region is estimated to be primarily composed of iron with smaller amounts of nickel sulfur and less than trace elements The geochemist F W Clarke calculated that a little more than of Earth s crust consists of oxygen The more common rock constituents of the crust are nearly all oxides chlorine sulfur and fluorine are the important exceptions to this and their total amount in any rock is usually much less than The principal oxides are silica alumina iron oxides lime magnesia potash and soda The silica functions principally as an acid forming silicates and all the most common minerals of igneous rocks are of this nature From a computation based on analyses of all kinds of rocks Clarke deduced that was composed of oxides see the table at right with the other constituents occurring in minute quantities Internal structureMain article Structure of the Earth Earth s interior like that of the other terrestrial planets is divided into layers by their chemical or physical rheological properties but unlike the other terrestrial planets it has a distinct outer and inner core The outer layer is a chemically distinct silicate solid crust which is underlain by a highly viscous solid mantle The crust is separated from the mantle by the Mohorovicic discontinuity and the thickness of the crust varies averaging km kilometers under the oceans and – km on the continents The crust and the cold rigid top of the upper mantle are collectively known as the lithosphere and it is of the lithosphere that the tectonic plates are composed Beneath the lithosphere is the asthenosphere a relatively low viscosity layer on which the lithosphere rides Important changes in crystal structure within the mantle occur at and km below the surface spanning a transition zone that separates the upper and lower mantle Beneath the mantle an extremely low viscosity liquid outer core lies above a solid inner core The inner core may rotate at a slightly higher angular velocity than the remainder of the planet advancing by – ° per year The radius of the inner core is about one fifth of Earth s Geologic layers of Earth Earth cutaway from core to exosphere Not to scale Depth km Component Layer Density g cm – Lithosphere n — – Crust n – – Upper mantle – – Mantle – – Asthenosphere — – Outer core – – Inner core – HeatMain article Earth s internal heat budget Earth s internal heat comes from a combination of residual heat from planetary accretion about and heat produced through radioactive decay The major heat producing isotopes within Earth are potassium uranium uranium and thorium At the center the temperature may be up to °C °F and the pressure could reach GPa Because much of the heat is provided by radioactive decay scientists postulate that early in Earth s history before isotopes with short half lives had been depleted Earth s heat production would have been much higher This extra heat production twice present day at approximately Ga would have increased temperature gradients with radius increasing the rates of mantle convection and plate tectonics and allowing the production of uncommon igneous rocks such as komatiites that are rarely formed today Present day major heat producing isotopes Isotope Heat release W kg isotope Half life years Mean mantle concentration kg isotope kg mantle Heat release W kg mantle U × × × × U × × × × Th × × × × K × × × × The mean heat loss from Earth is mW m for a global heat loss of × W A portion of the core s thermal energy is transported toward the crust by mantle plumes a form of convection consisting of upwellings of higher temperature rock These plumes can produce hotspots and flood basalts More of the heat in Earth is lost through plate tectonics by mantle upwelling associated with mid ocean ridges The final major mode of heat loss is through conduction through the lithosphere the majority of which occurs under the oceans because the crust there is much thinner than that of the continents Tectonic platesEarth s major plates Plate name Area km Pacific Plate African Plate n North American Plate Eurasian Plate Antarctic Plate Indo Australian Plate South American Plate Main article Plate tectonics The mechanically rigid outer layer of Earth the lithosphere is broken into pieces called tectonic plates These plates are rigid segments that move in relation to one another at one of three types of plate boundaries convergent boundaries at which two plates come together divergent boundaries at which two plates are pulled apart and transform boundaries in which two plates slide past one another laterally Earthquakes volcanic activity mountain building and oceanic trench formation can occur along these plate boundaries The tectonic plates ride on top of the asthenosphere the solid but less viscous part of the upper mantle that can flow and move along with the plates As the tectonic plates migrate across the planet the ocean floor is subducted under the leading edges of the plates at convergent boundaries At the same time the upwelling of mantle material at divergent boundaries creates mid ocean ridges The combination of these processes continually recycles the oceanic crust back into the mantle Due to this recycling most of the ocean floor is less than Ma old in age The oldest oceanic crust is located in the Western Pacific and has an estimated age of about Ma By comparison the oldest dated continental crust is Ma The seven major plates are the Pacific North American Eurasian African Antarctic Indo Australian and South American Other notable plates include the Arabian Plate the Caribbean Plate the Nazca Plate off the west coast of South America and the Scotia Plate in the southern Atlantic Ocean The Australian Plate fused with the Indian Plate between and mya The fastest moving plates are the oceanic plates with the Cocos Plate advancing at a rate of mm year and the Pacific Plate moving – mm year At the other extreme the slowest moving plate is the Eurasian Plate progressing at a typical rate of about mm year SurfaceMain articles Lithosphere Landform and Extreme points of Earth Features of Earth s solid surface shown as percentages of the planet s total surface area Oceanic ridges Ocean basin floors Continental mountains Continental lowlands Continental shelves and slopes Continental rise Volcanic island arcs trenches submarine volcanoes and hills An aerial view of Barringer Meteor Crater in Arizona Earth s terrain varies greatly from place to place About of the surface is covered by water with much of the continental shelf below sea level This equates to million km million sq mi The submerged surface has mountainous features including a globe spanning mid ocean ridge system as well as undersea volcanoes oceanic trenches submarine canyons oceanic plateaus and abyssal plains The remaining million km or million sq mi not covered by water consists of mountains deserts plains plateaus and other landforms The planetary surface undergoes reshaping over geological time periods due to tectonics and erosion The surface features built up or deformed through plate tectonics are subject to steady weathering and erosion from precipitation thermal cycles and chemical effects Glaciation coastal erosion the build up of coral reefs and large meteorite impacts also act to reshape the landscape Present day Earth altimetry and bathymetry Data from the National Geophysical Data Center s TerrainBase Digital Terrain Model The continental crust consists of lower density material such as the igneous rocks granite and andesite Less common is basalt a denser volcanic rock that is the primary

constituent of the ocean floors Sedimentary rock is formed from the accumulation of sediment that becomes buried and compacted together Nearly of the continental surfaces are covered by sedimentary rocks although they form about of the crust The third form of rock material found on Earth is metamorphic rock which is created from the transformation of pre existing rock types through high pressures high temperatures or both The most abundant silicate minerals on Earth s surface include quartz feldspars amphibole mica pyroxene and olivine Common carbonate minerals include calcite found in limestone and dolomite The pedosphere is the outermost layer of Earth s continental surface and is composed of soil and subject to soil formation processes The total arable land is of the land surface with being permanent cropland Close to of Earth s land surface is used for cropland and pasture or an estimated × km of cropland and × km of pastureland The elevation of the land surface varies from the low point of m at the Dead Sea to a estimated maximum altitude of m at the top of Mount Everest The mean height of land above sea level is m Besides being divided logically into Northern and Southern hemispheres centered on the poles Earth has been divided arbitrarily into Eastern and Western hemispheres Earth s surface is traditionally divided into seven continents and various seas HydrosphereMain article Hydrosphere Elevation histogram of Earth s surfaceThe abundance of water on Earth s surface is a unique feature that distinguishes the Blue Planet from other planets in the Solar System Earth s hydrosphere consists chiefly of the oceans but technically includes all water surfaces in the world including inland seas lakes rivers and underground waters down to a depth of m The deepest underwater location is Challenger Deep of the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean with a depth of m n The mass of the oceans is approximately × metric tons or about of Earth s total mass The oceans cover an area of × km with a mean depth of m resulting in an estimated volume of × km If all of Earth s crustal surface was at the same elevation as a smooth sphere the depth of the resulting world ocean would be to km About of the water is saline the remaining is fresh water Most fresh water about is present as ice in ice caps and glaciers The average salinity of Earth s oceans is about grams of salt per kilogram of sea water salt Most of this salt was released from volcanic activity or extracted from cool igneous rocks The oceans are also a reservoir of dissolved atmospheric gases which are essential for the survival of many aquatic life forms Sea water has an important influence on the world s climate with the oceans acting as a large heat reservoir Shifts in the oceanic temperature distribution can cause significant weather shifts such as the El Niño Southern Oscillation AtmosphereMain article Atmosphere of Earth A typhoon as seen from low Earth orbitThe atmospheric pressure on Earth s surface averages kPa with a scale height of about km It has a composition of nitrogen and oxygen with trace amounts of water vapor carbon dioxide and other gaseous molecules The height of the troposphere varies with latitude ranging between km at the poles to km at the equator with some variation resulting from weather and seasonal factors Earth s biosphere has significantly altered its atmosphere Oxygenic photosynthesis evolved Gya forming the primarily nitrogen–oxygen atmosphere of today This change enabled the proliferation of aerobic organisms and indirectly the formation of the ozone layer due to the subsequent conversion of atmospheric O into O The ozone layer blocks ultraviolet solar radiation permitting life on land Other atmospheric functions important to life include transporting water vapor providing useful gases causing small meteors to burn up before they strike the surface and moderating temperature This last phenomenon is known as the greenhouse effect trace molecules within the atmosphere serve to capture thermal energy emitted from the ground thereby raising the average temperature Water vapor carbon dioxide methane and ozone are the primary greenhouse gases in the atmosphere Without this heat retention effect the average surface would be °C in contrast to the current °C and life would likely not exist Weather and climateMain articles Weather and Climate In this scene from Antarctica Earth s south polar continent ice ridges contrast with towering clouds Satellite cloud cover image of Earth using NASA s Moderate Resolution Imaging SpectroradiometerEarth s atmosphere has no definite boundary slowly becoming thinner and fading into outer space Three quarters of the atmosphere s mass is contained within the first km of the surface This lowest layer is called the troposphere Energy from the Sun heats this layer and the surface below causing expansion of the air This lower density air then rises and is replaced by cooler higher density air The result is atmospheric circulation that drives the weather and climate through redistribution of thermal energy The primary atmospheric circulation bands consist of the trade winds in the equatorial region below ° latitude and the westerlies in the mid latitudes between ° and ° Ocean currents are also important factors in determining climate particularly the thermohaline circulation that distributes thermal energy from the equatorial oceans to the polar regions Water vapor generated through surface evaporation is transported by circulatory patterns in the atmosphere When atmospheric conditions permit an uplift of warm humid air this water condenses and falls to the surface as precipitation Most of the water is then transported to lower elevations by river systems and usually returned to the oceans or deposited into lakes This water cycle is a vital mechanism for supporting life on land and is a primary factor in the erosion of surface features over geological periods Precipitation patterns vary widely ranging from several meters of water per year to less than a millimeter Atmospheric circulation topographic features and temperature differences determine the average precipitation that falls in each region The amount of solar energy reaching Earth s surface decreases with increasing latitude At higher latitudes the sunlight reaches the surface at lower angles and it must pass through thicker columns of the atmosphere As a result the mean annual air temperature at sea level decreases by about °C °F per degree of latitude from the equator Earth s surface can be subdivided into specific latitudinal belts of approximately homogeneous climate Ranging from the equator to the polar regions these are the tropical or equatorial subtropical temperate and polar climates Climate can also be classified based on the temperature and precipitation with the climate regions characterized by fairly uniform air masses The commonly used Köppen climate classification system as modified by Wladimir Köppen s student Rudolph Geiger has five broad groups humid tropics arid humid middle latitudes continental and cold polar which are further divided into more specific subtypes Climate on Earth has latitudinal anomalies namely the habitability of the Scandinavian peninsula very far north in sharp contrast to the polar climates of northern Canada as well as the cool summers expected at low latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere for example on the west coast of South America Another anomaly is the impact of landmass on temperature manifested by the fact that Earth is much warmer at aphelion where the planet is at a more distant position from the Sun When the Northern hemisphere is turned towards the sunlight even the increased distance to it does not hinder temperatures to be °C °F warmer than at perihelion—when the marine southern hemisphere is turned towards the Sun At high latitudes the western sides of continents tend to be milder than the eastern sides—for example seen in North America and Western Europe where rough continental climates appear on the east coast on parallels with mild climates on the other side of the ocean The highest air temperature ever measured on Earth was °C °F in Furnace Creek California in Death Valley in The lowest air temperature ever directly measured on Earth was °C °F at Vostok Station in but satellites have used remote sensing to measure temperatures as low as °C °F in East Antarctica These temperature records are only measurements made with modern instruments from the th century onwards and likely do not reflect the full range of temperature on Earth Upper atmosphere This view from orbit shows the full Moon partially obscured by Earth s atmosphere NASA imageAbove the troposphere the atmosphere is usually divided into the stratosphere mesosphere and thermosphere Each layer has a different lapse rate defining the rate of change in temperature with height Beyond these the exosphere thins out into the magnetosphere where the geomagnetic fields interact with the solar wind Within the stratosphere is the ozone layer a component that partially shields the surface from ultraviolet light and thus is important for life on Earth The Kármán line defined as km above Earth s surface is a working definition for the boundary between the atmosphere and outer space Thermal energy causes some of the molecules at the outer edge of the atmosphere to increase their velocity to the point where they can escape from Earth s gravity This causes a slow but steady leakage of the atmosphere into space Because unfixed hydrogen has a low molecular mass it can achieve escape velocity more readily and it leaks into outer space at a greater rate than other gases The leakage of hydrogen into space contributes to the shifting of Earth s atmosphere and surface from an initially reducing state to its current oxidizing one Photosynthesis provided a source of free oxygen but the loss of reducing agents such as hydrogen is thought to have been a necessary precondition for the widespread accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere Hence the ability of hydrogen to escape from the atmosphere may have influenced the nature of life that developed on Earth In the current oxygen rich atmosphere most hydrogen is converted into water before it has an opportunity to escape Instead most of the hydrogen loss comes from the destruction of methane in the upper atmosphere Magnetic fieldMain article Earth s magnetic field Schematic of Earth s magnetosphere The solar wind flows from left to rightThe main part of Earth s magnetic field is generated in the core the site of a dynamo process that converts kinetic energy of fluid convective motion into electrical and magnetic field energy The field extends outwards from the core through the mantle and up to Earth s surface where it is to rough approximation a dipole The poles of the dipole are located close to Earth s geographic poles At the equator of the magnetic field the magnetic field strength at the surface is × T with global magnetic dipole moment of × T m The convection movements in the core are chaotic the magnetic poles drift and periodically change alignment This causes field reversals at irregular intervals averaging a few times every million years The most recent reversal occurred approximately years ago MagnetosphereThe extent of Earth s magnetic field in space defines the magnetosphere Ions and electrons of the solar wind are deflected by the magnetosphere solar wind pressure compresses the dayside of the magnetosphere to about Earth radii and extends the nightside magnetosphere into a long tail Because the velocity of the solar wind is greater than the speed at which wave propagate through the solar wind a supersonic bowshock precedes the dayside magnetosphere within the solar wind Charged particles are contained within the magnetosphere the plasmasphere is defined by low energy particles that essentially follow magnetic field lines as Earth rotates the ring current is defined by medium energy particles that drift relative to the geomagnetic field but with paths that are still dominated by the magnetic field and the Van Allen radiation belt are formed by high energy particles whose motion is essentially random but otherwise contained by the magnetosphere